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#+setupfile: ../headers
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* Grammar
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** Word Structure :noexport:
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** Word Classes
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*** Nouns :noexport:
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# - What are the distributional properties of nouns?
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# - What are the structural properties of nouns?
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# - What are the major formally distinct subcategories of nouns?
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# - What is the basic structure of the noun word (for polysynthetic
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# languages) and/or noun phrases (for more isolating languages)?
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**** Countables and Uncountables :noexport:
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**** Proper Nouns :noexport:
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*** Pronouns and Anaphoric Clitics
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# - Does the language have free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics?
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# (These are distinct from grammatical agreement.)
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# - Give a chart of the free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics.
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**** Personal Pronouns
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#+name: 1-2-personal-pronouns-table
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#+caption: First and second person pronouns in Eittlandic
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| | 1s | 2s | 1p | 2p |
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|------+-----+-----+-----+-----|
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| Nom. | ek | þú | vér | ér |
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| Acc. | mik | þik | oss | yðr |
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| Dat. | mér | þér | oss | yðr |
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| Gen. | mín | þín | vár | yðr |
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The only notable change in written form from their Early Old Norse
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version is the regularization of the genitive plural second person
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/yðar/ into /yðr/. Otherwise, most changes only happened regarding their
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phonology as explained in [[file:./phonology.md#evolution-from-early-old-norse-to-eittlandic][the evolution from Early Old Norse to
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Eittlandic]].
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2024-04-22 07:16:39 +00:00
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#+name: 3-personal-pronouns-table
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#+caption: Third person pronouns in Eittlandic
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| | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
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|---------+-----------+----------+--------|
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| Sg.Nom. | hann | han | þat |
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| Sg.Acc. | han | han | þat |
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| Sg.Dat. | hanum | henn | því |
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| Sg.Gen. | hans | hennar | þass |
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|---------+-----------+----------+--------|
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| Pl.Nom. | þeir | þér | þau |
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| Pl.Acc. | þá | þér | þau |
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| Pl.Dat. | þeim | þeim | þeim |
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| Pl.Gen. | þeir | þeir | þeir |
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Here we also have few changes from the Early Old Norse pronouns for
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the third persons, singular and plural.
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An additional set of pronouns contains reflexive pronouns. This one is
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relatively small, as it does not agree in person, number, or gender.
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However, it still agrees in case. Note that there is no nominative
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reflexive pronoun in Eittlandic.
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| Nom | - |
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| Acc | sik |
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| Dat | sér |
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| Gen | sín |
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**** Demonstrative Pronouns
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During its evolution from Old Eittlandic, the Eittlandic language lost
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one set of demonstrative pronouns, the one containing /sé/ in Old
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Eittlandic and Old Norse, in favour of the sets containing /hinn/ and
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/þessi/. Thus, we have these two sets in Eittlandic.
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| | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
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|--------+-----------+----------+--------|
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| Sg Nom | hinn | hinn | hitt |
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| Sg Acc | hin | hin | hitt |
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| Sg Dat | hinum | hin | hin |
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| Sg Gen | hins | hins | hins |
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|--------+-----------+----------+--------|
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| Pl Nom | hiner | hiner | hin |
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| Pl Acc | hin | hiner | hin |
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| Pl Dat | hinum | hinum | hinum |
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| Pl Gen | hinn | hinn | hinn |
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It is interesting to see that this set of pronouns retained some
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differences between their masculine and feminine form, which has
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become quite rare in Modern Eittlandic. These are used similarly to
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“that” or “those” in English, designating elements or things that are
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judged as distant by the speaker from themselves.
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On the other hand, the following pronouns containing /þess/ relate to
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the words “this” and “these” in English.
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**** Possessive Pronouns
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Possessive pronouns in Eittlandic simply are the genitive form of the
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personal pronouns shown [[file:./grammar.md#personal-pronouns][above]]. The pronoun agrees with the owner in
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person and number, and in gender when the third person is used, as in
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English.
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They generally replace a whole nominative proposition, such as with
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the example below.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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– Havir þú historiabøk?
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– Ek haft gleymt mín
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#+html: :::
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You can compare them to English possessive pronouns like /mine/, /yours/,
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or /theirs/.
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# That’s possessive adjectives, move it in the right header
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# The first and more formal usage, inherited from Old Norse, is to
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# precede the noun phrase owned by the owner with the genitive pronoun.
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# For instance, /mín katt/ means /my cat/ while /þeim katt/ means /their cat/
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# (as shown in [[file:./grammar.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], we have no way to know if /katt/, a strong
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# common word, is singular or plural accusative).
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# The second and more casual way to express possession is using the
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# definite form of a word and placing the possessive pronoun after it.
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# We can adapt the previous examples of /my cat/ and /their cat/ as /kattin
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# mín/ and /kattin þeim/.
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# While these two forms provide a difference in tone, the second form is
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# more limited as it only allows single word noun phrases to be the
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# possessed element while the first allows more complex noun phrases.
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# The sentence /mín kattrinn komand frá heim/ (/my cat coming from home/)
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# would need to be modified in order to fit the second structure, such
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# as /kattrinn mín, hvar komr frá heim/ (/my cat, who is coming from home/).
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*** Verbs
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# - What are the distributional properties of verbs?
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# - What are the structural properties of verbs?
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# - What are the major subclasses of verbs?
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# - Describe the order of various verbal operators within the verbal
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# word or verb phrase.
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# - Give charts of the tense/aspect/mode, etc. Indicate major
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# allomorphic variants.
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# - Are directional and/or locational notions expressed in the verb or
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# verb phrase at all?
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# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the
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# paradigm have to occur in every finite verb or verb phrase?
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# - Is it productiv
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# verb stems, and does it have the same meaning with each one?
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# (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more
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# productive than others.)
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# - Is this operation primarily coded morphologically, analytically,
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# or lexically? Are there any exceptions to the general case?
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# - Where in the verb phrase or verbal word is this operation likely
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# to appear? Can it occur in more than one place?
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Eittlandic, as most if not all North Germanic language, is a V2
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language. This implies that in most cases, the verb in sentences will
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come at the second position, possibly moving its subject right between
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the verb itself and the rest of the verb phrase. The only exception to
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this are questions and the use of imperative. More on that later.
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Since Early Old Norse, Eittlandic evolved its verb both towards
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simplification on one hand, making the verb endings a lot more regular
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and predictable, and complexification with the addition of new moods
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and tenses.
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2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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**** Infinitive
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The infinitive form of verbs in Eittlandic is generally used when the
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verbal phrase it is part of is treated as the object of another
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phrase, similarly to how infinitive works in other Nordic languages or
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English. For instance, “he likes to eat” translates to “hann líkar
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eta” ({{{phon(hanː lèkar̩ et)}}}), where “eta” is the object of the verbs
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“líkar”. This form is the one given in the dictionary and undergoes no
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inflexion.
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**** Imperative
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The imperative has the same form as the infinitive in Eittlandic. The
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evolution of the Eittlandic language made it lose the second singular
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and plural distinction, leaving the same form for both. Eittlandic
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verbs also evolved in such a way most, if not all, of them have the
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same form as their infinitive counterpart.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Et matin þín
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Eat your food!
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| et | mat-inn | þín |
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| eat.IMP | food-DEF.ACC | 2s.GEN |
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- Et matin yðr
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Eat your food!
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| et | mat-inn | yðr |
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| eat.IMP | food-DEF.ACC | 2p.GEN |
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#+html: :::
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**** Participles
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Formation of participles is relatively simple in Eittlandic is pretty
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simple, as it simply adds /-and/ and /-it/ to the verbal root of the verb
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in order to form the present participle and the past participle
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respectively.
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#+name: verb-participle-declension
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#+caption: Formation of Eittlandic Participles
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| Present Participle | -and |
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| Past Participle | -it |
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**** Indicative
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Indicative the only non-irrealis mood available in Eittlandic. It is
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used to express events or facts that are happening or happened with
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certainty from the speaker’s point of view. This mood only exists for
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the present, progressive, preterit, and perfect tenses. Other tenses,
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such as future, exist in other moods as explained below.
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The first two basic tenses are the present and past tenses. The
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present tense in Eittlandic is relatively similar to the English
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present tense, as it can describe what the speaker perceives as
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general truths, habitual facts, events that are happening at the same
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time as the time of speech, or current facts. It can also indicate
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events when the English language would use the progressive mood
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instead. Eittlandic does have a progressive mood of its own, though
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slightly different, see [[file:./grammar.md#progressive][below]]. Lastly, it can also express near future
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when other clues are available in the discourse.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Í Eittland, vér snakk eittlandsk.
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In Eittland, we speak Eittlandic.
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#+html: :::
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Here is how the typical verb is inflected in the indicative mood:
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#+name: verb-indicative-inflexion-table
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#+caption: Typical Verb Inflexion in the Indicative Mood
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| <c> | | | |
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| person | | Ind. Pres. | Ind. Past |
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|--------+---+------------+-----------|
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| 1s | | -(V)r | -t |
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| 2s | | -(V)r | -t |
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| 3s | | -(V)r | -t |
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| 1p | | -um | -um |
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| 2p | | -ið | -uð |
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| 3p | | -ið | -uð |
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An important feature to note is /-(V)r/ makes the underlying final vowel
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of a verb appear, while it is otherwise lost in all other contexts.
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For instance, the verb /lík/ becomes /líkar/ when in singular indicative
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present, but /líkt/ when in singular indicative past.
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Here are the indicative present declensions of the verbs /far(a)/ (/to
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go/, a strong verb), and /berja/ (/to beat/, a weak verb):
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#+name: verb-inflexion-ind-example
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#+caption: Indicative present inflexion of /far(a)/ and /berja/
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| person | | far | berja |
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|--------+---+-------+--------|
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| 1s | | ferar | berjar |
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| 2s | | ferar | berjar |
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| 3s | | ferar | berjar |
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| 1p | | farum | berjum |
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| 2p | | farið | berið |
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| 3p | | farið | berið |
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Note that the final vowel of /berja/ gets replaced with the vowel from
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the inflexion, and the final /j/ also disappears when it is immediately
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followed by an /i/.
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**** Subjunctive
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The subjunctive is the default irrealis mood of Eittlandic. It is
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therefore used to indicate various states of unreality, such as doubt
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(through other means than the [[file:./grammar.md#dubitative][dubitative]] mood), possibility,
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necessity, or desire (again, through other means than the [[file:./grammar.md#optative][optative]]
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mood).
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Sólskinir í dag
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May it be sunny today
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2024-06-30 15:25:55 +00:00
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- Ef ek komuskat hér, vér talim til ná
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2024-06-23 13:58:11 +00:00
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If I came, we would still be talking
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- Hann sé kominn eigi enn
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He may not have arrived yet
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#+html: :::
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Like the indicative mood, it has two tenses, present and past, in
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which verbs get inflexions. Below is the table showing how verbs
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typically inflect in the subjunctive mood:
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2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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#+name: verb-subjunctive-inflexion-table
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#+caption: Typical Verb Inflexion in the Subjunctive Mood
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| <c> | | | |
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| person | | Subj. Pres. | Subj. Past |
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|--------+---+-------------+------------|
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| 1s | | -ir | -t |
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| 2s | | -ir | -t |
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| 3s | | -ir | -t |
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| 1p | | -im | -um |
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| 2p | | -ið | -uð |
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| 3p | | -ið | -uð |
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As you can see, the subjunctive past form of verbs is identical to
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their indicative past form, as shown below.
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#+name: verb-inflexion-past-example
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#+caption: Indicative and Subjunctive Past Inflexion of /far(a)/ and /berja/
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| person | | far | berja |
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|--------+---+-------+--------|
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| 1s | | fert | berjat |
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| 2s | | fert | berjat |
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| 3s | | fert | berjat |
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| 1p | | farum | berjum |
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| 2p | | faruð | berjuð |
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| 3p | | faruð | berjuð |
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**** Perfect
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The perfect aspect in Eittlandic is relatively similar to the modern
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past form of the language. It also uses the verbs /ver/ and /hav/ before
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the verb, which both agree in number, tense, and mood instead of the
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main verb which appears in its participle form. The present participle
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is used when the event relates to the present or the future, while the
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past participle is used when the event relates to a time in the past.
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It also uses the verbs /ver/ and /hav/ before
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the verb, which both agree in number, tense, and mood instead of the
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main verb. The latter, on the other hand, appears in its participle
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form, present or past depending on whether the action is happening or
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will happen, or if it happened in the past.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Hann haft sovin, þá kunn hann kom
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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He had slept, thus he could come
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| han-n | haft | sov-in | þá | kunn | han-n | kom |
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| 3sm.NOM | have.3s.PST.IND | sleep-PST.PART | thus | can.3s.PST.IND | 3sm.NOM | come |
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2024-06-30 15:25:55 +00:00
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- Vér havum lesit bókan í dag
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2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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We have read the book today
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2024-06-30 15:25:55 +00:00
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| vér | hav-um | les-and | bók-an | í dag |
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2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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| 1p.NOM | have-1p.PRES.IND | read-PRES.PART | book-DEF.ART | today |
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#+html: :::
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**** Future :noexport:
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**** Passive
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The passive voice, inherited from the /-sk/ form in Old Norse, has some
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more regular declension than the other moods. However, this is the
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last declension where we can still see the remains of the distinction
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between strong and weak verbs inherited from Old Norse.
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#+name: passive-declension-table
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#+caption: Strong and Weak Verb Inflexion for the Indicative Present and Past in Passive Voice
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| <c> | | | |
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| person | | Strong | Weak |
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|--------+---+----------+-------------|
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| 1s | | -umk | -umk |
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| 2s | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
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| 3s | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
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| 1p | | -umk | -umk |
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| 2p | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
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| 3p | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
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#+name: passive-example-table
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#+caption: Example of passive with /far/ and /berja/
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| person | | far | berja |
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|--------+---+--------+-----------|
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| 1s | | ferumk | berjumk |
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| 2s | | ferisk | berjaðisk |
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| 3s | | ferisk | berjaðisk |
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| 1p | | farumk | berjumk |
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| 2p | | farask | berjaðisk |
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| 3p | | farask | berjaðisk |
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Due to this uniformization of the passive voice in Eittlandic,
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Eittlanders began using the verbs /ver(a)/ and /hav(a)/ (respectively /to
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be/ and /to have/) as auxiliaries preceding the verb in order to convey
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the subject, tense, and mood agreement. The verb /ver(a)/ is most often
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used in active verbs, while the verb /hav(a)/ is generally used with
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stative verbs. While all verbs have a default auxiliary, such as
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/ver(a)/ for a verb like /et(a)/ (/to eat/), the speaker may choose to use
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the other auxiliary in order to increase or decrease the agency of the
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semantic agent (not the syntactic agent), even if it is not present in
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the sentence.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Ek var brennumk mik
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| ek | var | brenn-umk | mik |
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| 1s.NOM | be.1s.IND.PST | burn-1s.PAS | 1s.ACC |
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/I burnt myself/
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- Ek hav brennumk mik
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| ek | hav | brenn-umk | mik |
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| 1s.NOM | have.1s.IND.PST | burn-1s.PAS | 1s.ACC |
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/I got burnt/
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#+html: :::
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**** Progressive
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The progressive mood is generally used to express an ongoing action at
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the time of speech. Note that its usage is a bit different from
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English, as Eittlandic progressive is rarer in spoken Eittlandic and
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even rarer in written Eittlandic. It is generally used to disambiguate
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a sentence that could be either indicative or progressive, but is
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usually omitted when the speaker feels like the progressive mood
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should be obvious enough.
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To mark the progressive, the word /ná/ is placed just after the verb,
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without any other word between them.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
|
2024-06-30 15:25:55 +00:00
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- Vér kannum hléð vit? Nei, ek etar.
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2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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Can we talk? Nah, I’m eating
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2024-06-30 15:25:55 +00:00
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| vér | kann-um | hléð | vit |
|
2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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| 1P.NOM | can-1P.PRES.IND | talk | Q |
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| nei | ek | et-ar |
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| no | 1S.NOM | eat-1S.PRES.IND |
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- Hvat gerar þú í Sunsdag? Ek les bøk, nem hlustar ná ek tonlist.
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What do you do on Sundays? I read books, but (right now) I’m
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listening to music
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| hvat | ger-ar | þú | í | Sunsdag |
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| what.NOM | do-2s.PRES.IND | 2s.NOM | on | Sunday.PL.DAT |
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| ek | les | bøk |
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| 1s.NOM | read.1s.PRES.IND | book.PL.ACC |
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| nem | hlust-ar | ná | ek | tonlist |
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| but | listen-1s.PRES.IND | PROG | 1s.NOM | music.ACC |
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#+html: :::
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**** Conditional
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The conditional mood allows speakers of Eittlandic to speak about
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conditional events while marking them as such. This translates into
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several strategies.
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|
2024-06-30 15:26:28 +00:00
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The first strategy adds /-(u)þ(a)-/ between the verb root and its
|
2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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indicative declension. It marks conditionals the speakers estimates to
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be unlikely.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
|
2024-06-30 15:26:28 +00:00
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Ef þú gefuþar mér ein fisk, vér etim þat
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2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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If you somehow give me a fish, we’ll eat it
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#+html: :::
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|
2024-06-30 15:26:28 +00:00
|
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The second strategy, which is the default strategy and holds a neutral
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stance towards how likely the hypothetical situation is, uses the verb
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/skal(a)/ as an auxilliary in the conditional mood.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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Ef þú skaluþ gef mér ein fisk, vér etim þat
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If you give me a fish, we’ll eat it
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#+html: :::
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The third stategy, which indicates some confidence by the speaker that
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the situation is likely, is to use the verb /man(u)/ the same way as
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/skal(a)/ is used in the second strategy. This strategy is also
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sometimes used to express a softer future, though one that still might
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not happen.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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Ef þú manuþ gef mér ein fisk, vér etim þat
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If you give me a fish, we’ll eat it / When you’ll give me a fish, we’ll eat it
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#+html: :::
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|
2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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**** Causative :noexport:
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**** Jussive
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The jussive is percieved as a more subtle, more formal form of the
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[[file:./grammar.md#imperative][imperative]]. It is formed by adding /-(i)l/ at the end of the verbal
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root.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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Etal matin þín
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Please eat your food.
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| eta-l | mat-inn | þín |
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| eat-JUS | food-DEF.ACC | 2s.GEN |
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#+html: :::
|
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**** Optative :noexport:
|
2024-06-30 15:26:28 +00:00
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The optative mood serves to express wishes. There are two main
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strategies to express the optative mood in Eittlandic.
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The first one is a syntactic construction using the verb /vilja/ with a
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nominal phrase or verbal phrase with a verb in the infinitive mood
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being the wished element. It denotes a wish rather than a want.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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Ek vil far.
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I wish I could go.
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#+html: :::
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The second strategy is a morphological mood of the verb formed by
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inserting -(i)nn(i)- between the verb root and its subjunctive
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declension.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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Ek ferinnir.
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I want to go.
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#+html: :::
|
2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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**** Dubitative
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The dubitative mood in Eittlandic is a mood used by the speaker to
|
2024-06-23 13:58:11 +00:00
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express doubt or uncertainty. The doubtfulness of the speaker is
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treated more seriously than when using a simple subjective sentence.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Hann sé kominn eigi enn
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He may not have arrived yet
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| han-n | sé | kom-inn | eigi | enn |
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| 3sm-NOM | to.be.1sg.SUBJ | come-PST.PART. | NEG | yet |
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- Hann esakki kominn eigi enn
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He has probably not arrived yet
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| han-n | es-akki | kom-inn | eigi | enn |
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| 3sm-NOM | to.be-1sg.PRES.IND-DUB | come-PST.PART. | NEG | yet |
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#+html: :::
|
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It is formed by inserting /-(a)kki/ between the verbal root and the
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indicative declension. It translates to this declension table:
|
2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
#+name: verb-dubitative-inflexion-table
|
|
|
|
|
#+caption: Typical Verb Inflexion
|
|
|
|
|
| <c> | | | |
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|
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| person | | Ind. Pres. | Ind. Past |
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|--------+---+------------+-----------|
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| 1s | | -(a)kkir | -(a)kkit |
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| 2s | | -(a)kkir | -(a)kkit |
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| 3s | | -(a)kkir | -(a)kkit |
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| 1p | | -(a)kkim | -(a)kkum |
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| 2p | | -(a)kkið | -(a)kkuð |
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| 3p | | -(a)kkið | -(a)kkuð |
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|
#+html: ::: tip Example
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Hann kømakkir í dag
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He might not come today
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| Hann | køm-akkir | í dag |
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| 3sm.NOM | come-3s.DUB.PRES | today |
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#+html: :::
|
|
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|
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|
*** Verbs :noexport:
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Eittlandic, as most if not all North Germanic language, is a V2
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language. This implies that in most cases, the verb in sentences will
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|
come at the second position, possibly moving its subject right between
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the verb itself and the rest of the verb phrase. The only exception to
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this are questions and the use of imperative. More on that later.
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Since Early Old Norse, Eittlandic evolved its verb both towards
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simplification on one hand, making the verb endings a lot more regular
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and predictable, and complexification with the addition of new moods
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and tenses.
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**** Verbal Structure :noexport:
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**** Verbal Derivations :noexport:
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**** Verbal Inflexions
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Verbs in Eittlandic agree with their subject in person and number,
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though it lost a lot of its diversity Old Norse had. It also varies
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depending on the tense, mood, and aspect of the verbal sentence. The
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2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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examples are given using the verbs /far(a)/ (/to go/, a strong verb), and
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/berja/ (/to beat/, a weak verb).
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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2024-04-22 07:16:39 +00:00
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#+name: verb-inflexion-table
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#+caption: Typical Verb Inflexion
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| <c> | | | | |
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| person | | Ind. Pres. | Subj. Pres. | Ind. and Subj. Past |
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|--------+---+------------+-------------+---------------------|
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| 1s | | -(V)r | -ir | -t |
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| 2s | | -(V)r | -ir | -t |
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| 3s | | -(V)r | -ir | -t |
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| 1p | | -um | -im | -um |
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| 2p | | -ið | -ið | -uð |
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| 3p | | -ið | -ið | -uð |
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#+name: verb-inflexion-ind-example
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#+caption: Indicative present inflexion of /far(a)/ and /berja/
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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| person | | far | berja |
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|--------+---+-------+--------|
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| 1s | | ferr | berjar |
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| 2s | | ferr | berjar |
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| 3s | | ferr | berjar |
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| 1p | | farum | berjum |
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| 2p | | farið | berið |
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| 3p | | farið | berið |
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Note that the final vowel of /berja/ gets replaced with the vowel from
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the inflexion, and the final /j/ also disappears when it is immediately
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followed by an /i/.
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Present subjunctive has similar declensions to present indicative.
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2024-04-22 07:16:39 +00:00
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#+verb-inflexion-subj-example
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#+caption: Subjunctive present inflexion of /far(a)/ and /berja/
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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| person | | far | berja |
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|--------+---+-------+-------|
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| 1s | | ferir | berir |
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| 2s | | ferir | berir |
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| 3s | | ferir | berir |
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| 1p | | farim | berim |
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| 2p | | farið | berið |
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| 3p | | farið | berið |
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We can see again how the /ja/ at the end of infinitive /berja/ got
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replaced by the ending of subjunctive present verbs.
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The past declension is simpler as there is no difference between
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indicative and subjunctive past.
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2024-04-22 07:16:39 +00:00
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#+name: verb-inflexion-past-example
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#+caption: Indicative and subjunctive past inflexion of /far(a)/ and /berja/
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| person | | far | berja |
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|--------+---+-------+--------|
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| 1s | | fert | berjat |
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| 2s | | fert | berjat |
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| 3s | | fert | berjat |
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| 1p | | farum | berjum |
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| 2p | | faruð | berjuð |
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| 3p | | faruð | berjuð |
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The infinitive and imperative merged due to the final vowel loss,
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making /far/ and /berja/ not only the infinitive form of /to go/ and /to
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beat/, but also their imperative form. Present and past participles are
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on the other hand made by appending /-and/ and /-it/ respectively.
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| infinitive / imperative | far | berja |
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| present participle | farand | berjand |
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| past participle | farit | berit |
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When it comes to the passive voice, inherited from the /-sk/ form in Old
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Norse, its declension is a lot more regular. However, we’ll see the
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remaining difference between strong and weak verbs.
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2024-04-22 07:16:39 +00:00
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#+name: passive-declension-table
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#+caption: Strong and Weak Verb Inflexion for the Indicative Present and Past in Passive Voice
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| <c> | | | |
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| person | | Strong | Weak |
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|--------+---+----------+-------------|
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| 1s | | -umk | -umk |
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| 2s | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
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| 3s | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
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| 1p | | -umk | -umk |
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| 2p | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
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| 3p | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
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2024-04-22 07:16:39 +00:00
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#+name: passive-example-table
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#+caption: Example of passive with /far/ and /berja/
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| person | | far | berja |
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|--------+---+--------+-----------|
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| 1s | | ferumk | berjumk |
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| 2s | | ferisk | berjaðisk |
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| 3s | | ferisk | berjaðisk |
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| 1p | | farumk | berjumk |
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| 2p | | farask | berjaðisk |
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| 3p | | farask | berjaðisk |
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There is only one minor difference for the subjunctive mood: both the
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first-person singular and plural change to /-imk/ instead of /-umk/.
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Imperative, on the other hand, only works with the second person in
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the present tense by appending an /-sk/ at the end of the infinitive of
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the verb.
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2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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Due to this uniformization of the passive voice in Eittlandic,
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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Eittlanders began using the verbs /ver(a)/ and /hav(a)/ (respectively /to
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be/ and /to have/) as auxiliaries preceding the verb in order to convey
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the subject, tense, and mood agreement. The verb /ver(a)/ is most often
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used in active verbs, while the verb /hav(a)/ is generally used with
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stative verbs. While all verbs have a default auxiliary, such as
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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/ver(a)/ for a verb like /et(a)/ (/to eat/), the speaker may choose to use
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2024-01-28 17:56:38 +00:00
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the other auxiliary in order to increase or decrease the agency of the
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semantic agent (not the syntactic agent), even if it is not present in
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the sentence.
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Ek var brennumk mik
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| ek | var | brenn-umk | mik |
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| 1s.NOM | be.1s.IND.PST | burn-1s.PAS | 1s.ACC |
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/I burnt myself/
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- Ek hav brennumk mik
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| ek | hav | brenn-umk | mik |
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| 1s.NOM | have.1s.IND.PST | burn-1s.PAS | 1s.ACC |
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/I got burnt/
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#+html: :::
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The verbs /var(a)/ and /hav(a)/ are irregular verbs that do not follow the
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same inflexion rules. For a list of their inflexion, see their
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dictionary entry ([[file:./dictionary.md#ver-a][ver(a)]] and [[file:./dictionary.md#hav-a][hav(a)]]).
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The passive voice inherits from the Old Norse mediopassive voice. It
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is often used to promote a semantic patient to a syntactic agent and
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to demote a semantic agent to a syntactic oblique, sometimes even
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completely removing it from the sentence.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Maðrinn dragt fiskin frá vatnin
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| maðr-inn | drag-t | fisk-in | frá | vatn-in |
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| man.NOM-DEF.NOM | drag-IND.PST | fish-DEF.ACC | from | water-DEF.DAT |
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The man fished the fish from the water
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- Fiskinn var dragask frá vatnin
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| Fiskr-inn | var | drag-ask | frá | vatn-in |
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| fish.NOM-DEF.NOM | be.3s.IND.PST | drag-STG.PAS | from | water-DEF.DAT |
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The fish was fished from the water
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#+html: :::
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2024-09-12 19:05:21 +00:00
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*** Modifiers
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# - If you posit a morphosyntactic category of adjectives, give
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2024-01-28 17:56:38 +00:00
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# evidence for not grouping these forms with the verbs or nouns. What
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2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
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# characterizes a form as being an adjective in this language?
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# - How can you characterize semantically the class of concepts coded
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# by this formal category?
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# - Do adjectives agr
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# noun class)?
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# - What kind of syst
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# - How high can a fluent native speaker count without resorting
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# either to words from another language or to a generic word like
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# /many/? Exemplify the system up to this point.
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# - Do numerals agree with their head nouns (number, case, noun
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# class, ...)?
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2024-09-12 19:05:21 +00:00
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**** Descriptive Adjectives
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Similarly to verbs, adjectives in Eittlandic underwent a
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simplification since Early Old Norse. They now all inflect the same
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way, as the difference between strong and weak adjectives disappeared
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over the years. It is also worth noting distiction between masculine
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and feminine disappeared, merging into a common gender, while neuter
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remains distinct.
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#+name: adjectives-declensions
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#+caption: Declension of adjectives in Eittlandic
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| / | <r> | | |
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| | | Common | Neuter |
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|---+---------+--------+--------|
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| | Sg.Nom. | -r | -t |
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| | Acc. | | -t |
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| | Dat. | -um | -um |
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| | Gen. | -s | -s |
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| | Pl.Nom. | -ar | |
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| | Acc. | | |
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| | Dat. | -um | -um |
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| | Gen. | -ar | -r |
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2024-09-14 13:05:46 +00:00
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If an adjective root ends with a rounded vowel, all /-um/ and /-ar/
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endings become /-vum/ or /-var/ instead respectively. Otherwise, the
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consonant is doubled before the declension’s vowel if there is one.
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2024-09-12 19:05:21 +00:00
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Meðr er Hindirar, þrírr er Hindurar
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The men are Hindi, three are Hindu
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#+html: :::
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The adjectives agree in declension, number, and gender with the noun
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or noun phrase they describe. In terms of word order, they always
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precede the noun or noun phrase, regardles whether the noun is in its
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indefinite or definite form.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Latr káttinn kúrar hjá opin dyrin
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The lazy cat naps by the open door
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| lat-r | kátt-inn | kúr-ar | hjá | opin | dyr-in |
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| lazy-SG.NOM | cat-DEF.SG.NOM | nap-3sg.IND.PRES | by | open.SG.ACC | door-DEF.SG.ACC |
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- Rauðt dyrit ok smár vindaugat er opinn
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The red door and the small windows are open
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| rauð-t | dyr-it | ok | smár | vindaug-at | er | opin-n |
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| red-SG.N.NOM | door-DEF.SG.NOM | and | small.PL.N.NOM | window-DEF.PL.NOM | to.be.3pl.IND.PRES | open-PL.N.ACC |
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#+html: :::
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What you will find most often in Eittlandic dictionaries is the
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accusative singular common form of the adjectives, which is its
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unmarked form, while some older or more traditional dictionaries will
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instead use their nominative singular common form.
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*Standard Eittlandic* does not use declensions and will always use the
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unmarked adjective root instead. A few dialects do not use adjective
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declensions either, but they are relatively rare, such as the dialects
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found in the Úlfsaug valley in Northeastern Fjallheim.
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**** Participal Adjectives
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Taking the root of a verb and adding the declension of definite
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articles creates participal adjectives. For instance, /sov(a)/ (to
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sleep) becomes /sovin/ (sleepy) while /hleð(a)/ (to make noise) becomes
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/hleðin/ (noisy).
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#+name: participal-adj-example-sov-sovin
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#+caption: Example of participal adjective using /sov(a)/
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| / | <r> | | |
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| | | Common | Neuter |
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|---+---------+---------+---------|
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| | Sg.Nom. | sovinn | sovit |
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| | Acc. | sovin | sovit |
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| | Dat. | sovin | sovit |
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| | Gen. | sovins | sovits |
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| | Pl.Nom. | sovinn | sovitr |
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| | Acc. | sovin | sovit |
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| | Dat. | sovinum | sovitum |
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| | Gen. | sovin | sovit |
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Þat er eit hleðit bil ná!
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This is one noisy car, isn’t it‽
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#+html: :::
|
2024-01-28 17:56:38 +00:00
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**** Possessive Adjectives
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2024-09-12 19:05:21 +00:00
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Similarly to [[file:./grammar.md#possessive-pronouns][possessive pronouns]], possessive adjectives mark ownership
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or relationship from an element with another. However, possessive
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adjectives modify a noun or noun phrase and are not free forms.
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Possessive adjectives are very similar to possessive pronouns, their
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base root is the same but possessive adjectives agree with the
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possessed element in person, number, gender, and declension. Agreement
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in number follows both the number of possessor and possessed. Hence,
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/várt/ is a possessive adjectives marking one nominative element being
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possessed by several people in the first person, while /mínar/ is a
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possessive adjective marking several nominative elements being
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possessed by one individual in the first person.
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#+name: possessive-adjectives-1-and-2
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#+caption: Possessive adjectives for the first and second person
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| / | <r> | | | | | | | | |
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| | | 1s C. | 1s N. | 2s C. | 2s N. | 1p C. | 1p N. | 2p C. | 2p N. |
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|---+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------|
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| | Sg.Nom. | mínn | mínt | þínn | þínt | várr | várt | yðr | yðt |
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| | Acc. | mín | mínt | þín | þínt | vár | várt | yð | yðt |
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| | Dat. | mínum | mínum | þínum | þínum | várum | várum | yðum | yðum |
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| | Gen. | míns | míns | þíns | þíns | várs | várs | yðs | yðs |
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| | Pl.Nom. | mínar | mín | þínar | þín | várar | vár | yðar | yð |
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| | Acc. | mín | mín | þín | þín | vár | vár | yð | yð |
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| | Dat. | mínum | mínum | þínum | þínum | várum | várum | yðum | yðum |
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| | Gen. | mínar | mínn | þínar | þínn | várar | várr | yðar | yðr |
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In the third person, gender of the possessor is also followed by the
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possessive adjective when there is a singular possessor. This means
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the gender of the adjectives must also agree both with the gender of
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the possessor and the possessed when the former is singular.
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#+name: possessive-adjectives-3
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#+caption: Possessive adjectives for the third person
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| / | <r> | | | | | | |
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| | | 3sc C. | 3sc N. | 3sn C. | 3sn N. | 3p C. | 3p N. |
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|---+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------|
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| | Sg.Nom. | hennar | hent | þass | þast | þeirr | þeirt |
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| | Acc. | henn | hent | þass | þast | þeir | þeirt |
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| | Dat. | hennum | henum | þasum | þasum | þeirum | þeirum |
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| | Gen. | hens | hens | þass | þass | þeirs | þeirs |
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| | Pl.Nom. | hennar | henn | þasar | þass | þeirar | þeir |
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| | Acc. | henn | henn | þass | þass | þeir | þeir |
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| | Dat. | hennum | hennum | þasum | þasum | þeirum | þeirum |
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| | Gen. | hennar | henn | þasar | þass | þeirar | þeirr |
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#+html: ::: tip Examples
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- Hundinn þeirar hlaupið in í parkit
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Their dogs are running in the park (i.e. several people’s dogs)
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| hund-r | þeir-ar | hlaup-ið | in | í | park-it |
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| dog-pl.NOM | 3sc.c.ADJ.POSS-pl.NOM | run-3p.PRES.IND | in | DAT | park-DET.sg.DAT |
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- Ek kent sonin yðum historja
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I taught your son history
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| ek | ken-t | son-in | yð-um | historja |
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| 1sg.NOM | teach-1s.PST.IND | son-DEF.DAT.sg | 2p.POSS-DAT.SG | history.ACC |
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- Mínn káttr es svartr með ein hvít flekk á hennum bjálf, á hennum hóst.
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My cat is black with a white spot on her fur, on her chest.
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| mín-n | kátt-r | es | svart-r | með | ein | hvít | flekk | á | hen-num | bjálf | á | hen-num | hóst |
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| 1sg.POSS-sg.NOM.C | cat-sg.NOM | 3sg.PRES.IND | black-sg.NOM | with | one.ACC | white.ACC | spot.ACC | DAT | 3sg.POSS-sg.DAT.C | fur.sg.ACC | DAT | 3sg.POSS.sg.DAT.C | chest.sg.ACC |
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#+html: :::
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2024-01-28 17:56:38 +00:00
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**** Non-Numeral Quantifiers :noexport:
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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**** Numerals :noexport:
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2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
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*** Adverbs :noexport:
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# - What characterikes a form as being an adverb in this language? If
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# you posit a distinct class of adverbs, argue for why these forms
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# should not be treated as nouns, verbs, or adjectives.
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# - For each kind of adverb listed in this section, list a few members
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# of the type, and specify whether there are any restrictions
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# relavite to that type, e.g. where they can come in a clause, any
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# morphemes common to the type, etc.
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# - Are any of these classes of adverbs related to older
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# complement-taking (matrix) verbs?
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*** Adpositions :noexport:
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*** Grammatical Particules :noexport:
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** Constituants Order Typology
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*** Constituants Order in Main Clauses :noexport:
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# - What is the neutral order of free elements in the unit?
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# - Are there variations?
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# - How do the variant orders function?
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# - Specific to the main clause constituent order: What is the
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# pragmatically neutral order of constituents (A/S, P, and V) in
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# basic clauses of the language?
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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*** Constituants Order in Nominal Clauses :noexport:
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2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
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# - Describe the order(s) of elements in the noun phrase.
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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*** Constituants Order in Verbal Clauses :noexport:
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2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
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# - Where do auxliari
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# verb?
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# - Where do verb-phrase adverbs occur with respect to the verb and
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# auxiliaries?
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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*** Adpositional Phrases :noexport:
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2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
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# - Is the language dominantly prepositional or post-positional? Give
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# examples.
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# - Do many adpositions come from nouns or verbs?
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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*** Comparatives :noexport:
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2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
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# - Does the language have one or more grammaticalized comparative
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# constructions? If so, what is the order of the standard, the
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# marker and the quality by which an item is compared to the
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# standard?
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*** Questions
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# - In yes/no questions, if there is a question particle, where does
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# it occur?
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# - In information qu
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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Questions in Eittlandic are formed by inverting the syntactic subject
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2023-12-26 13:45:35 +00:00
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with its verb in a normal sentence. For example, the sentence /hann
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komr í dag með faðin hans/ (/he’s coming today with his father/) becomes
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a question when inverting /hann/ and /komr/. This is generally regarded as
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a formal way of forming questions.
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A more formal way of creating a question is by suffixing /-vit/ at the
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end of a verb without any change to the word order of the sentence. If
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there is any declension at the end of the verb, /-vit/ will bear it
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instead of the stem of the verb itself. It is somewhat similar to
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asking a question in English by simply raising the sentence’s tone.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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2024-09-12 19:05:07 +00:00
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- Hann komar í dag með faðin hans
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2024-09-12 19:05:07 +00:00
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| hann | kom-ar | í dag | með | fað-in | hans |
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2023-12-26 13:45:35 +00:00
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| 3s.m.NOM | come-s.PRES.IND | today | with | father.ACC-DEF | 3s.m.GEN |
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He’s coming with his father today.
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2024-09-12 19:05:07 +00:00
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- Komar han í dag með faðin hans?
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2023-12-26 13:45:35 +00:00
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2024-09-12 19:05:07 +00:00
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| kom-ar | hann | í dag | með | fað-in | hans |
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2023-12-26 13:45:35 +00:00
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| come-s.PRES.IND | 3s.m.NOM | today | with | father.ACC-DEF | 3s.m.GEN |
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Is he coming with his father today?
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- Han komavitr í dag með maðin hans?
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2023-12-26 13:45:35 +00:00
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2024-09-12 19:05:07 +00:00
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| hann | koma-vit-r | í dag | með | fað-in | hans |
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2023-12-26 13:45:35 +00:00
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| 3s.m.NOM | come-Q-s.PRES.IND | today | with | father.ACC-DEF | 3s.m.GEN |
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He’s coming with his father today?
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#+html: :::
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The verbs /ver(a)/ and /hav(a)/ both cannot use this construction.
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Instead, Eittlandic speakers may instead simply add /vit/ as a
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standalone word at the end of the question.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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2024-09-12 19:05:07 +00:00
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- Hann es konung.
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2024-09-12 19:05:07 +00:00
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| hann | es | konung |
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2023-12-26 13:45:35 +00:00
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| 3s.m.NOM | be.3s.PRES.IND | king.ACC |
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He is the king.
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- Er hann konung?
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| er | hann | konung |
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| be.3s.PRES.IND | 3s.m.NOM | king.ACC |
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Is he the king?
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- Hann er konung vit?
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| hann | er | konung | vit |
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| 3s.m.NOM | be.3s.PRES.IND | king | Q |
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He is the king?
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#+html: :::
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This also applies to general questions as shown below, where the
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question word takes the place of either the syntactic patient or
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syntactic dative of the verb.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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2024-09-12 19:05:07 +00:00
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- Hvar est þú?
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2023-12-26 13:45:35 +00:00
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2024-09-12 19:05:07 +00:00
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| hvar | est | þú |
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| where | be.2s.PRES.IND | 2s.NOM |
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2023-12-26 13:45:35 +00:00
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2024-09-12 19:05:07 +00:00
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Where are you?
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- Þú est hver vit?
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2023-12-26 13:45:35 +00:00
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2024-09-12 19:05:07 +00:00
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| þú | est | hvar | vit |
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| 2s.NOM | be.2s.PRES.IND | where | Q |
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2023-12-26 13:45:35 +00:00
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2024-09-12 19:05:07 +00:00
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Where are you? / Where you at?
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2023-12-26 13:45:35 +00:00
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#+html: :::
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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**** Yes/No questions
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Yes/no questions are generally answered by /já/ or /nei/ (/yes/ or /no/
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respectively), sometimes with a repeat of the core of the sentence to
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2024-01-28 17:56:38 +00:00
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confirm the reply.
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Komr han í dag með faðin hans?
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Is he coming today with his father?
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- Nei, han komr eig
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No, he’s not coming
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or
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- Já, han komr
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Yes, he’s coming
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#+html: :::
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The interjections /já/ and /nei/ are often ambiguous when replying to a
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question employing a negative verb and are often avoided; Eittlanders
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will prefer to reply with part of or the entirety of the question with
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either a negative marker or not to confirm or deny the assumption of
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the question.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Komr han eig í dag?
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Is he not coming today?
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- Han komr eig
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He’s not coming
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or
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- Han komr
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#+html: :::
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Another strategy, a lot more common when replying to negative
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questions, is to reply using counter-factual interjection /eng/ meaning
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/yes/, while speakers will consider a simple /nei/ as an approbation of
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the assumption of the question.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Komr han eig í dag?
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Is he not coming today?
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- Nei (han komr eig)
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No (he’s not coming)
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or
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- Áng (han komr)
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Yes he is coming
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#+html: :::
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Similarly, when a question with a positive assumption is asked,
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Eittlandic speakers can answer with a counter-factual /náng/ to insist
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on its erroneous nature.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Komr han eig í dag?
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Is he not coming today?
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- Náng (han komr eig)
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Of course not (he’s not coming)
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#+html: :::
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Some yes/no questions are sometimes asked in a very reduced form,
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without a full verbal sentence and only consisting of a noun phrase.
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2024-01-28 17:56:38 +00:00
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Think of questions like /Coffee?/ or /Another cookie?/ in English. Such
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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questions in Eittlandic require the final word /vit/.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Té ell kafé vit?
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Tea or coffe?
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- Té, þakk.
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Tea, please/thanks.
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#+html: :::
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**** General questions
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General questions that are not yes/no questions will most of the time
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begin with a question word such as /hvar/ (/who/), the equivalent of WH
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words in English.
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|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
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** Structure of a Nominal Group
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|
|
|
*** Composed Words :noexport:
|
|
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|
# - Is there noun-noun compounding that results in a noun (e.g.
|
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|
|
# /windshield/)?
|
|
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|
# - How do you know it is compounding?
|
|
|
|
|
# - Is there noun-verb (or verb-noun) compounding that results in a
|
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|
|
# noun (e.g. /pickpocket/, /scarecrow/)?
|
|
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|
# - Are these process
|
|
|
|
|
# can-opener)? How common is compounding?
|
|
|
|
|
*** Denominalization :noexport:
|
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|
# - Are there any processes (productive or not) that form a verb from
|
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|
# a noun?
|
|
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# - An adjective from a noun?
|
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|
# - An adverb from a noun?
|
|
|
|
|
*** Numbers :noexport:
|
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|
# - Is number express
|
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|
# - Is the distinction between singular and non-singular obligatory,
|
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|
# optional, or completely absent in the noun phrase?
|
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|
# - If number marking is “optional”, when does it tend to occur, and
|
|
|
|
|
# when does it tend not to occur?
|
|
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|
# - If number marking is obligatory, is number overtly expressed for
|
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|
# all noun phrases or only some subclasses of noun phrases, such as
|
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|
# animate?
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|
# - What non-singular distinctions are there?
|
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|
|
|
*** Grammatical Case
|
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|
# - Do nouns exhibit morphological case?
|
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|
# - If so, what are the cases? (The functions of the cases will be
|
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|
# elaborated in lat
|
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|
|
**** Cases in Modern Eittlandic
|
2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
|
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Although seldom visible, as described in [[file:grammar.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], cases still
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
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|
remain part of the Eittlandic grammar, expressed through its syntax
|
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|
rather than explicit marking on its nouns and adjectives. Four
|
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different grammatical cases exist in this language: the *nominative*,
|
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*accusative*, *genitive*, and *dative* case.
|
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- The *nominative* case represents the subject of a sentence, that is,
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the subject of intransitive clauses and the agent of transitive
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clauses. As we’ll see below, it is morphologically marked only in
|
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dialects other than Standard Eittlandic, and only if the word is a
|
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strong masculine word.
|
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|
- On the other hand *accusative*, like Old Norse, usually marks the
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|
object of a verb, but it can also express time-related ideas such as
|
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a duration in time, or after some prepositions. It is also the
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default case when a noun has no clear status in a clause, and it can
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as such serve as a vocative.
|
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|
- *Dative* usually marks indirect objects of verbs in Old Norse, though
|
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it can also often mark direct objects depending on the verb used.
|
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|
**** Case Marking
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Although present in Early Old Norse, the use of grammatical cases has
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|
been on the decline since the Great Vowel Shift (see [[file:phonology.md#great-vowel-shift][Phonology: Great
|
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|
|
Vowel Shift]]). Due to the general loss of word-final short vowels and
|
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|
to regularization of its nouns, Eittlandic lost almost all of weak
|
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|
|
nouns’ inflexions and a good amount in its strong nouns’ inflexions.
|
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On top of this, the root of most nouns got regularized, getting rid of
|
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|
|
former umlauts. Hence, while in Old Norse one might find the table
|
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|
below presented in Cleasby and Vigfusson (1874), Modern Eittlandic is
|
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|
simplified to the table following it.
|
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#+name: tbl:old-norse-noun-inflexions
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#+caption: 1st declension of strong nouns and declensions of masculine weak nouns in Old Norse
|
2024-09-12 19:04:44 +00:00
|
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|
| / | <r> | | | | |
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|
| | | Strong Masculine | Strong Feminine | Strong Neuter | Weak Masculine |
|
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|
|---+---------+------------------+-----------------+---------------+----------------|
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|
| | Sg.Nom. | heim-r | tíð | skip | tím-i |
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|
| | Acc. | heim | tíð | skip | tím-a |
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|
| | Dat. | heim-i | tíð | skip-i | tím-a |
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|
| | Gen. | heim-s | tíð-ar | skip-s | tím-a |
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|
| | Pl.Nom. | heim-ar | tíð-ir | skip | tím-ar |
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|
| | Acc. | heim-a | tíð-ir | skip | tím-a |
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|
| | Dat. | heim-um | tíð-um | skip-um | tím-um |
|
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|
| | Gen. | heim-a | tíð-a | skip-a | tím-a |
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
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|
#+name: tbl:eittlandic-example-noun-inflexions
|
|
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|
#+caption: Declensions for strong and weak nouns in Modern Eittlandic
|
2024-09-12 19:04:44 +00:00
|
|
|
|
| / | <r> | | | |
|
|
|
|
|
| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter | Weak Nouns |
|
|
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|
|
|---+---------+---------------+---------------+------------|
|
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|
| | Sg.Nom. | heim-r | skip | tím |
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|
| | Acc. | heim | skip | tím |
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|
| | Dat. | heim | skip | tím |
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|
|
| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s |
|
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|
| | Pl.Nom. | heim-r | skip | tím-r |
|
|
|
|
|
| | Acc. | heim | skip | tím |
|
|
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|
| | Dat. | heim-um | skip-um | tím-um |
|
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|
| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s |
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
|
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|
|
As you can see, a good amount of declensions disappeared from nouns,
|
|
|
|
|
with only four marked cases for strong common nouns and two for strong
|
|
|
|
|
neuter and weak nouns. The declension system completely merged weak
|
|
|
|
|
nouns which are no longer distinguished by gender. Strong masculine
|
|
|
|
|
and strong feminine also got merged into strong common.
|
|
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|
|
|
2024-01-28 17:56:38 +00:00
|
|
|
|
We end up with the following declension system in Eittlandic.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
#+name: tbl:eittlandic-noun-inflexion
|
|
|
|
|
#+caption: Eittlandic noun inflexion
|
2024-09-12 19:04:44 +00:00
|
|
|
|
| / | <r> | | | |
|
|
|
|
|
| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter | Weak Nouns |
|
|
|
|
|
|---+---------+---------------+---------------+------------|
|
|
|
|
|
| | Sg.Nom. | -r | | |
|
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|
| | Acc. | | | |
|
|
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|
| | Dat. | | | |
|
|
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|
|
| | Gen. | -(a)r | -s | -s |
|
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|
|
| | Pl.Nom. | -r | | -r |
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|
| | Acc. | | | |
|
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|
|
| | Dat. | -um | -um | -um |
|
|
|
|
|
| | Gen. | -(a)r | -s | -s |
|
2024-01-28 17:56:38 +00:00
|
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|
The /-ar/ ending drops the /a/ when an underlying ending vowel is present
|
|
|
|
|
in a word, as with /dótt/ (daughter) becoming /dóttir/ in its genitive
|
|
|
|
|
form. In some regions of Eittland, such as in the area of Vátrsteinn,
|
|
|
|
|
a strong neuter / weak noun merger is in effect, where strong neuter
|
|
|
|
|
merged into weak nouns. In the area of Hvítvall in North Western
|
|
|
|
|
Eastern Eittland, a complete merger between the three types of nouns
|
|
|
|
|
happened around the 1850s, where everything is declined as a weak
|
|
|
|
|
noun.
|
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|
|
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|
|
Nethertheless, declensions are no longer productive in most Modern
|
|
|
|
|
Eittlandic dialects. They are still mostly used in formal and written
|
|
|
|
|
speech, but they are less and less frequently used in less formal
|
|
|
|
|
circumstances and in oral speech. The Royal Academy for Literature,
|
|
|
|
|
which authored the Standard Eittlandic, even recommends not using
|
|
|
|
|
grammatical cases when using this dialect as they are seen as
|
|
|
|
|
reduntand with other syntactic strategies. While the recommendation is
|
|
|
|
|
mostly followed, speakers still tend to use the singular genetive
|
|
|
|
|
declension oraly. Younger folks at the time of writing even tend to
|
|
|
|
|
regularize it as /-ar/ for strong neuter and weak nouns.
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2023-09-24 15:54:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
One exception to declensions no longer being productive is in and
|
|
|
|
|
around the Hylfjaltr Kingdom exclave in southern Eittland where
|
2024-01-28 17:56:38 +00:00
|
|
|
|
speakers of its local dialect tend instead to favour strong nouns for
|
2023-09-24 15:54:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
newer terms. Hence, while most dialects agree on “internet” (pl.nom
|
|
|
|
|
/internetr/, pl.dat /internetum/) being a weak noun, this dialect treats
|
|
|
|
|
it as either a strong feminine (sg.gen /internetar/, pl.nom&acc
|
|
|
|
|
/internetr/, pl.dat /internetum/) or a strong neuter (sg.gen /internets/,
|
|
|
|
|
pl.dat /internetum/) --- the difference is due to subdivisions in said
|
2024-01-28 17:56:38 +00:00
|
|
|
|
dialect, mainly between rural and urban areas favouring the former and
|
2023-09-24 15:54:49 +00:00
|
|
|
|
the latter respectively.
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
There are some regular exceptions to the declension system. The first
|
|
|
|
|
one, inherited from Old Norse, is the /-r/ suffix becoming /-n/ or /-l/ when
|
|
|
|
|
a noun ends with an «n» or an «l» respectively, hence the table below
|
|
|
|
|
showing the declensions of strong masculine /himn/ (/heaven/) and strong
|
|
|
|
|
feminine /hafn/ (/harbour/, /haven/).
|
|
|
|
|
#+name: tbl:irregular-noun-declensions
|
2024-09-12 19:04:44 +00:00
|
|
|
|
| <r> | | |
|
|
|
|
|
| | himn | hafn |
|
|
|
|
|
|---------+--------+--------|
|
|
|
|
|
| Sg.Nom. | himnn | hafnn |
|
|
|
|
|
| Acc. | himn | hafn |
|
|
|
|
|
| Dat. | himn | hafn |
|
|
|
|
|
| Gen. | himnar | hafnar |
|
|
|
|
|
| Pl.Nom. | himnn | hafnn |
|
|
|
|
|
| Acc. | himn | hafn |
|
|
|
|
|
| Dat. | himnum | hafnum |
|
|
|
|
|
| Gen. | himnar | hafnar |
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
During the last five centuries, the root of the word got regularized
|
|
|
|
|
so that only one or two forms are allowed. Due to umlaut or ablaut, it
|
|
|
|
|
is possible the main vowel of a word changes between its singular and
|
|
|
|
|
plural form, even sometimes affecting its dative form. These changes
|
|
|
|
|
are due to old vowels long gone since --- with most even gone by the
|
|
|
|
|
time of Old Norse. These changes mainly remains in a few common words.
|
|
|
|
|
The table below gives some examples of such irregularities. These
|
|
|
|
|
words are marked as irregular in the dictionary.
|
|
|
|
|
#+name: tbl:irregularities-root-nouns
|
2024-09-12 19:04:44 +00:00
|
|
|
|
| <r> | | | | |
|
|
|
|
|
| | kettle (m.) | foot (m.) | book (f.) | water (n.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|---------+-------------+-----------+-----------+------------|
|
|
|
|
|
| Sg.Nom. | ketll | fótr | bók | vatn |
|
|
|
|
|
| Acc. | ketl | fót | bók | vatn |
|
|
|
|
|
| Dat. | ketl | fót | bók | vatn |
|
|
|
|
|
| Gen. | ketlar | fótar | bókar | vatn |
|
|
|
|
|
| Pl.Nom. | katll | fœtr | bœkr | vótnn |
|
|
|
|
|
| Acc. | katl | fœt | bœkr | vótn |
|
|
|
|
|
| Dat. | katlum | fótum | bókum | vótnum |
|
|
|
|
|
| Gen. | katl | fœt | bœk | vótn |
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
*** Articles and Demonstratives
|
|
|
|
|
# - Do noun phrases have articles?
|
|
|
|
|
# - If so, are they obligatory or optional, and under what
|
|
|
|
|
# circumstances do they occur?
|
|
|
|
|
# - Are they separate words, or bound morphemes?
|
|
|
|
|
# - Is there a class of classes of demonstratives as distinct from
|
|
|
|
|
# articles?
|
|
|
|
|
# - How many degrees of distance are there in the system of
|
|
|
|
|
# demontsratives?
|
|
|
|
|
# - Are there other distinctions beside distances?
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
When the noun of a nominal group is not a mass noun or a proper noun,
|
|
|
|
|
an article must accompany it, except for indefinite plural nouns.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
**** Indefinite Article
|
|
|
|
|
The indefinite article is /einn/, the same term as /one/ in Eittlandic. It
|
|
|
|
|
agrees in declension with its noun, though it is to be noted its
|
|
|
|
|
declension is irregular, as seen in table below. Similarly, other
|
2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
|
|
|
|
numerals have declensions as discussed in [[file:grammar.md#numerals][Word Classes: Numerals]].
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
|
|
|
#+name: tbl:declension-einn
|
|
|
|
|
| | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
|
|
|
|
|
|------+-----------+----------+--------|
|
|
|
|
|
| Nom. | einn | ein | eit |
|
|
|
|
|
| Acc. | ein | ein | eit |
|
2024-01-09 20:06:50 +00:00
|
|
|
|
| Dat. | einn | ein | eit |
|
|
|
|
|
| Gen. | ein | einn | eits |
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
**** Definite articles
|
2024-01-28 17:56:38 +00:00
|
|
|
|
As in other Scandinavian languages, definite articles in Eittlandic
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
|
|
|
act as suffixes to the noun and fully replace its declension as it has
|
|
|
|
|
case marking itself. The full declension table of definite articles
|
|
|
|
|
can be found in the table below. As we can see, the definite articles
|
|
|
|
|
underwent an important regularization as well as merging strong neuter
|
|
|
|
|
and weak nouns together.
|
2024-09-12 19:04:44 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
|
|
|
#+name: tbl:definite-articles
|
2024-09-12 19:04:44 +00:00
|
|
|
|
| / | <r> | | |
|
|
|
|
|
| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter and Weak Nouns |
|
|
|
|
|
|---+---------+---------------+------------------------------|
|
|
|
|
|
| | Sg.Nom. | -(i)nn | -(i)t |
|
|
|
|
|
| | Acc. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
|
|
|
|
| | Dat. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
|
|
|
|
| | Gen. | -(i)ns | -(i)ts |
|
|
|
|
|
| | Pl.Nom. | -(i)nn | -(i)tr |
|
|
|
|
|
| | Acc. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
|
|
|
|
| | Dat. | -(i)num | -(i)tum |
|
|
|
|
|
| | Gen. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The initial /i/ is only used when using the definite articles as a
|
|
|
|
|
suffix would cause a consonant cluster forbidden by Eittlandic
|
|
|
|
|
phonology, otherwise it is omitted. An example of the former case is
|
|
|
|
|
with /vatn/ (/water/) which becomes /vatnits/ when in its definite singular
|
|
|
|
|
genitive form, while /øy/ (/island/) becomes /øyns/ in the same form. Like
|
|
|
|
|
the indefinite article, the suffix agrees in gender, agreeing either
|
|
|
|
|
with strong masculine or feminine words (or as established before,
|
|
|
|
|
strong common) or with strong neuter and weak nouns.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The use of definite articles with nouns is further discussed in
|
2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
|
|
|
|
[[file:grammar.md#definiteness][Definiteness]].
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
*** Definiteness
|
|
|
|
|
Definiteness in Eittlandic serves multiple purposes. Its most obvious
|
|
|
|
|
one is to distinguish between an indefinite and a definite entity, as
|
|
|
|
|
in English /a dog/ or /the dog/, respectively /einn hundr/ and /hundinn/, as
|
2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
|
|
|
|
discussed in [[file:grammar.md#articles-and-demonstratives][Articles and Demonstratives]].
|
2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
However, definiteness is also necessary with suffixed possessives and
|
|
|
|
|
demonstrative.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
*** Possessives
|
|
|
|
|
# - How are possessors expressed in the noun phrase?
|
|
|
|
|
# - Do nouns agree with their possessors? Do possessors agree with
|
|
|
|
|
# possessed nouns? Neither, or both?
|
|
|
|
|
# - Is there a distinction between alienable and inalienable
|
|
|
|
|
# possesson?
|
|
|
|
|
# - Are there other types of possession?
|
|
|
|
|
# - When the possessor is a full noun, where does it usually come with
|
|
|
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# respect to the possessed noun?
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*** Gender
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# - Is there a noun class system?
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# - What are the classes and how are they manifested in the noun
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# phrase?
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# - What dimension of reality is most central to the noun class system
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# (e.g. animacy, shape, function, etc.)? What other dimensions are
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# relevant?
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# - Do the classifiers occur with numerals? Adjectives? Verbs?
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# - What is their function in these contexts?
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Eittlandic inherited from Old Norse a gender system divided into three
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genders: male, female, and neuter. Although the number of elements
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marking it declined during its evolution, Eittlandic still marks
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gender in its strong nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and to a certain
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2024-06-21 15:55:21 +00:00
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degree in its articles. However, as mentioned in [[file:grammar.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], case
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2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
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marking and by extensions gender marking is slowly disappearing in
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Modern Eittlandic nouns and adjectives.
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2023-03-20 16:27:36 +00:00
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Due to the presence of declensions with strong nouns and adjectives,
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its pronouns, and to a certain degree different articles, it can still
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be said Eittlandic is a gendered language, although it doesn’t hold
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2024-01-28 17:56:38 +00:00
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much importance in its grammar any more. Since strong nouns aren’t
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productive any more and weak nouns lost all obvious gender
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differences, we can even consider gender as not productive any more in
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Eittlandic and bound to eventually disappear. In fact, the loss of
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gender is even stronger in Standard Eittlandic due to the theoretical
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absence of declensions in this dialect.
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2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
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In case a strong noun is used with a strong adjective, both will agree
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in number and gender.
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2023-12-17 20:32:23 +00:00
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- hvítr hund
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| white.m.sg.acc | dog.m.sg.acc |
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white dog
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- langir tungir
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| long.f.pl.acc | tongues.f.pl.acc |
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long tongues
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#+html: :::
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2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
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*** Diminution and Augmentation :noexport:
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# - Does the language employ diminutive and/or augmentative operators
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# in the noun or noun phrase?
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# - Questions to answ
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# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the
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# paradigm have to occur in every full noun phrase?
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# - Is it productiv
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# full noun phras
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# one? (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more
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# so than others.)
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# - Is this operation primarily expressed lexically,
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# morphologically, or analytically?
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# - Where in the noun phrase is this operation likely to be located?
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# - Can it occur in more than one place?
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** Predicates and Linked Constructions :noexport:
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*** Nominal Predicates
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# - How are proper inclusion and equative predicates formed?
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# - What restrictions are there, if any, on the TAM marking of such
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# clauses?
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*** Adjective Predicates
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# - How are predicate adjective formed? (Include a separate section on
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# predicate adjectives only if they are structurally distinct from
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# predicate nominals.)
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2024-01-28 17:56:38 +00:00
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*** Locative Predicates
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2023-02-26 18:20:43 +00:00
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# - How are locational clauses (or predicate locatives) formed?
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*** Existential Predicates
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# - How are existential clauses formed? (Give examples in different
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# tense/aspects, especially if there is significant variation.)
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# - How are negative
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# - Are there extended uses of existential morphology? (Provide
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# pointers to other relevant sections of the grammar.)
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*** Possessive Clauses
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# - How are possessiv
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** Verbal Groups Structure :noexport:
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** Intransitive Clauses :noexport:
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** Ditransitive Clauses :noexport:
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** Dependent Type Clauses :noexport:
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*** Non-Finite
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*** Semi-Finite
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*** Finite
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2023-05-25 07:38:02 +00:00
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** Grammatical Relationship :noexport:
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# Examplify some simple intransitive, transitive, and ditransitive
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# clauses. Three-argument clauses may not unequivocally exist.
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# - What are the grammatical erlations of this language? Give
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# morphosyntactic evidence for each one that you propose.
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# - Subject?
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# - Ergative?
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# - Absolutive?
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# - Direct object?
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# - Indirect object?
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# There are basically four possible sources of evidence for
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# grammatical relations:
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# - morphological case on NPs
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# - person marking on verbs
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# - constituent ord
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# - some pragmatic hierarchy
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# - Is the system of grammatical relations in basic (affirmative,
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# declarative) clauses organized according to a
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# nominative/accusative, ergative/absolutive, tripartite, or some
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# other system?
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# - Is there a split system for organizing grammatical relations? If
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# so, what determin
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# - Is there split instransitivity? If so, what semantic or
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# discourse/pragmatic factor conditions the split?
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# - Does the system for pronouns and/or person marking on verbs
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# operate on the same basis as that of full NPs?
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# - Are there different grammatical-relation systems depending on
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# the clause type (e.g. main vs. dependent clauses, affirmative
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# vs. negative clauses)?
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# - Are there different grammatical-relation assignment systems
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# depending on th
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# - Are there any syntactic processes (e.g. conjunction reduction,
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# relativization) that operate on an ergative/absolutive basis?
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** Constructions Link :noexport:
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** Valence Increase :noexport:
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*** Causative
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*** Applicative
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*** Dative Shift
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*** Dative Interest
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*** External Possession
|
2023-12-29 12:02:52 +00:00
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* Notes :noexport:
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** Grammaticalization in Germanic Languages
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:PROPERTIES:
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:CAPTURED: [2021-01-02 sam. 14:32]
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:END:
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*** Nordic Languages
|
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|
**** Danish
|
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- *Reflexive* /-s/ (reflexive suffix) > *passive* (passive marker)
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- *sit* /sidde/ (sit) > *continuous* /sidde + og/ (coordinating conjunction, ’and’) + head verb -> progressive aspect
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**** Faroese
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- *demonstrative* > *conjunction*
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- *locative* > *a-possessive*
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**** Icelandic
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- *back* (body part) /bak/ > *after* /bak(i)/
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- *back* (body part) /bak/ > *behind* /(að) bak(i)/
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- *circle* /hringur/ > *around* /kring/
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- *environs* (vinicity) /(um)hverfi/ > *around* (spatial) /umhverfis/
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- *keep* /halda/ (to hold) > *continuous* /halda áfram að + INF/ (to continue to)
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- *man* /maður/ (man) > *indefinite pronoun* /maður/ (someone)
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**** Norwegian
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- *dative* > *a-possessive*
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- *intensive-refl* /selv/ > *even*
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**** Swedish
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- *house* /hus/ (house) > *locative* /hos/ (at, next to)
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- *keep* /hålla på att/ (hold) > *continuous*
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- *simile* /liksom/ (like, as) > *quotative* /liksom/ (nonverbatim quotative)
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** Word order:
|
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Postpositional:
|
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- AdjN
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- NRel
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- DemN
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- NumN and NNum
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- PossN and NPoss (mín katt & katten mín)
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- GenN
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** Genitive
|
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|
In the genitive noun phrase, the genetive part is declined at the
|
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genitive case, which cannot have a relative proposition. The noun
|
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phrase that characterizes the genitive is in the nominative case.
|
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Example:
|
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- My black and white cat’s big green eyes
|
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Mín svar
|