Lucien Cartier-Tilet
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#+setupfile: ../headers
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* Grammar
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** Word Structure :noexport:
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** Word Classes
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*** Nouns :noexport:
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# - What are the distributional properties of nouns?
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# - What are the structural properties of nouns?
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# - What are the major formally distinct subcategories of nouns?
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# - What is the basic structure of the noun word (for polysynthetic
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# languages) and/or noun phrases (for more isolating languages)?
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**** Countables and Uncountables :noexport:
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**** Proper Nouns :noexport:
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*** Pronouns and Anaphoric Clitics
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# - Does the language have free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics?
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# (These are distinct from grammatical agreement.)
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# - Give a chart of the free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics.
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**** Personal Pronouns
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| | 1s | 2s | 1p | 2s |
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|------------+-----+-----+-----+-----|
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| Nominative | ek | þú | vér | ér |
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| Accusative | mik | þik | oss | yðr |
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| Dative | mér | þér | oss | yðr |
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| Genitive | mín | þín | vár | yðr |
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#+begin_center
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First and second person pronouns in Eittlandic
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#+end_center
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The only notable change in written form from their Early Old Norse
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version is the regularization of the genitive plural second person
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/yðar/ into /yðr/. Otherwise, most changes only happened regarding their
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phonology as explained in [[file:./phonology.md#evolution-from-early-old-norse-to-eittlandic][the evolution from Early Old Norse to
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Eittlandic]].
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| | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
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|---------------------+-----------+----------+--------|
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| Singular Nominative | hann | han | þat |
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| Singular Accusative | han | han | þat |
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| Singular Dative | hanum | henn | því |
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| Singular Genitive | hans | hennar | þass |
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|---------------------+-----------+----------+--------|
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| Plural Nominative | þeir | þér | þau |
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| Plural Accusative | þá | þér | þau |
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| Plural Dative | þeim | þeim | þeim |
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| Plural Genitive | þeir | þeir | þeir |
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#+begin_center
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Third person pronouns in Eittlandic
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#+end_center
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Here we also have few changes from the Early Old Norse pronouns for
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the third persons, singular and plural.
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An additional set of pronouns contains reflexive pronouns. This one is
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relatively small, as it does not agree in person, number, or
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gender.However, it still agrees in case. Note that there is no
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nominative reflexive pronoun in Eittlandic.
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| Nominative | - |
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| Accusative | sik |
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| Dative | sér |
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| Genitive | sín |
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**** Demonstrative Pronouns
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During its evolution from Old Eittlandic, the Eittlandic language lost
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one set of demonstrative pronouns, the one containing /sé/ in Old
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Eittlandic and Old Norse, in favour of the sets containing /hinn/ and
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/þessi/. Thus, we have these two sets in Eittlandic.
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| | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
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|--------+-----------+----------+--------|
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| Sg Nom | hinn | hinn | hitt |
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| Sg Acc | hin | hin | hitt |
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| Sg Dat | hinum | hin | hin |
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| Sg Gen | hins | hins | hins |
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|--------+-----------+----------+--------|
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| Pl Nom | hiner | hiner | hin |
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| Pl Acc | hin | hiner | hin |
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| Pl Dat | hinum | hinum | hinum |
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| Pl Gen | hinn | hinn | hinn |
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It is interesting to see that this set of pronouns retained some
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differences between their masculine and feminine form, which has
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become quite rare in Modern Eittlandic. These are used in a similar
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way as “that” or “those” in English, designating elements or things
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that are judged as distant by the speaker from themselves.
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On the other hand, the following pronouns containing /þess/ relate to
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the words “this” and “these” in English.
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**** Possessive Pronouns
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Possessive pronouns in Eittlandic simply are the genitive form of the
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personal pronouns shown [[file:./grammar.md#personal-pronouns][above]]. The pronoun agrees with the owner in
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person and number, and in gender when the third person is used, as in
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English. They have two different usage.
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The first and more formal usage, inherited from Old Norse, is to
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precede the noun phrase owned by the owner with the genitive pronoun.
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For instance, /mín katt/ means /my cat/ while /þeim katt/ means /their cat/
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(as shown in [[file:./grammar.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], we have no way to know if /katt/, a strong
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common word, is singular or plural accusative).
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The second and more casual way to express possession is using the
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definite form of a word and placing the possessive pronoun after it.
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We can adapt the previous examples of /my cat/ and /their cat/ as /kattin
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mín/ and /kattin þeim/.
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While these two forms provide a difference in tone, the second form is
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more limited as it only allows single word noun phrases to be the
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possessed element while the first allows more complex noun phrases.
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The sentence /mín kattrinn komand frá heim/ (/my cat coming from home/)
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would need to be modified in order to fit the second structure, such
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as /kattrinn mín, hvar komr frá heim/ (/my cat, who is coming from home/).
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*** Verbs
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# - What are the distributional properties of verbs?
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# - What are the structural properties of verbs?
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# - What are the major subclasses of verbs?
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# - Describe the order of various verbal operators within the verbal
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# - word or verb phrase.
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# - Give charts of the tense/aspect/mode, etc. Indicate major
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# allomorphic variants.
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# - Are directional and/or locational notions expressed in the verb or
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# - verb phrase at all?
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# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the
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# paradigm have to occur in every finite verb or verb phrase?
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# - Is it productiv
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# verb stems, and does it have the same meaning with each one?
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# (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more
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# productive than others.)
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# - Is this operation primarily coded morphologically, analytically,
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# or lexically? Are there any exceptions to the general case?
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# - Where in the verb phrase or verbal word is this operation likely
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# to appear? Can it occur in more than one place?
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Eittlandic, as most if not all North Germanic language, is a V2
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language. This implies that in most cases, the verb in sentences will
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come at the second position, possibly moving its subject right between
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the verb itself and the rest of the verb phrase. The only exception to
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this are questions and the use of imperative. More on that later.
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Since Early Old Norse, Eittlandic evolved its verb both towards
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simplification on one hand, making the verb endings a lot more regular
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and predictable, and complexification with the addition of new moods
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and tenses.
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**** Verbal Structure :noexport:
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**** Verbal Derivations :noexport:
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**** Verbal Inflexions
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Verbs in Eittlandic agree with their subject in person and number,
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though it lost a lot of its diversity Old Norse had. It also varies
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depending on the tense, mood, and aspect of the verbal sentence. The
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examples are given using the verbs /far(a)/ (/to go/, a former strong
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verb), and /berja/ (/to beat/, a former weak verb).
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| <c> | | | | |
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| person | | Indicative Present | Subjunctive Present | Indicative and Subjunctive Past |
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|--------+---+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------------------|
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| 1s | | -r | -ir | -t |
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| 2s | | -r | -ir | -t |
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| 3s | | -r | -ir | -t |
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| 1p | | -um | -im | -um |
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| 2p | | -ið | -ið | -uð |
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| 3p | | -ið | -ið | -uð |
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#+begin_center
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/Typical Verb Inflexion/
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#+end_center
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| person | | far | berja |
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|--------+---+-------+--------|
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| 1s | | ferr | berjar |
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| 2s | | ferr | berjar |
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| 3s | | ferr | berjar |
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| 1p | | farum | berjum |
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| 2p | | farið | berið |
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| 3p | | farið | berið |
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#+begin_center
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Indicative present inflexion of /far(a)/ and /berja/
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#+end_center
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Note that the final vowel of /berja/ gets replaced with the vowel from
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the inflexion, and the final /j/ also disappears when it is immediately
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followed by an /i/.
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Present subjunctive has similar declensions to present indicative.
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| person | | far | berja |
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|--------+---+-------+-------|
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| 1s | | ferir | berir |
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| 2s | | ferir | berir |
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| 3s | | ferir | berir |
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| 1p | | farim | berim |
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| 2p | | farið | berið |
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| 3p | | farið | berið |
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#+begin_center
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Subjunctive present inflexion of /far(a)/ and /berja/
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#+end_center
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We can see again how the /ja/ at the end of infinitive /berja/ got
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replaced by the ending of subjunctive present verbs.
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The past declension is simpler as there is no difference between
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indicative and subjunctive past.
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| person | | far | berja |
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|--------+---+-------+--------|
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| 1s | | fert | berjat |
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| 2s | | fert | berjat |
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| 3s | | fert | berjat |
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| 1p | | farum | berjum |
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| 2p | | faruð | berjuð |
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| 3p | | faruð | berjuð |
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#+begin_center
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Indicative and subjunctive past inflexion of /far(a)/ and /berja/
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#+end_center
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The infinitive and imperative merged due to the final vowel loss,
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making /far/ and /berja/ not only the infinitive form of /to go/ and /to
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beat/, but also their imperative form. Present and past participles are
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on the other hand made by appending /-and/ and /-it/ respectively.
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| infinitive / imperative | far | berja |
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| present participle | farand | berjand |
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| past participle | farit | berit |
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When it comes to the passive voice, inherited from the /-sk/ form in Old
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Norse, its declension is a lot more regular. However, we’ll see the
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remaining difference between strong and weak verbs.
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| <c> | | | |
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| person | | Strong | Weak |
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|--------+---+----------+-------------|
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| 1s | | -umk | -umk |
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| 2s | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
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| 3s | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
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| 1p | | -umk | -umk |
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| 2p | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
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| 3p | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
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#+begin_center
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/Strong and Weak Verb Inflexion for the Indicative Present and Past in Passive Voice/
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#+end_center
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| person | | far | berja |
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|--------+---+--------+-----------|
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| 1s | | ferumk | berjumk |
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| 2s | | ferisk | berjaðisk |
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| 3s | | ferisk | berjaðisk |
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| 1p | | farask | berjaðisk |
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| 2p | | farask | berjaðisk |
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| 3p | | farask | berjaðisk |
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There is only one minor difference for the subjunctive mood: both the
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first person singular and plural change to /-imk/ instead of /-umk/.
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Imperative, on the other hand, only works with the second person in
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the present tense by appending an /-sk/ at the end of the infinitive of
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the verb.
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Due to this uniformisation of the passive voice in Eittlandic,
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Eittlanders began using the verbs /ver(a)/ and /hav(a)/ (respectively /to
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be/ and /to have/) as auxilliaries preceeding the verb in order to convey
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the subject, tense, and mood agreement. The verb /ver(a)/ is most often
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used in active verbs, while the verb /hav(a)/ is generally used with
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stative verbs. While all verbs have a default auxilliary, such as
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/ver(a)/ for a verb like /et(a)/ (/to eat/), the speaker may choose to use
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the other auxilliary in order to increase or decrease the agency of
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the semantic agent (not the syntactic agent), even if it is not
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present in the sentence.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Ek var brennumk mik
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| ek | var | brenn-umk | mik |
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| 1s.NOM | be.1s.IND.PST | burn-1s.PAS | 1s.ACC | /I burnt myself/
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- Ek hav brennumk mik
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| ek | hav | brenn-umk | mik |
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| 1s.NOM | have.1s.IND.PST | burn-1s.PAS | 1s.ACC | /I got burnt/
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#+html: :::
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The verbs /var(a)/ and /hav(a)/ are irregular verbs that do not follow the
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same inflexion rules. For a list of their inflexion, see their
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dictionary entry ([[file:./dictionary.md#ver-a][ver(a)]] and [[file:./dictionary.md#hav-a][hav(a)]]).
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The passive voice inherits from the Old Norse mediopassive voice. It
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is often used to promote a semantic patient to a syntactic agent and
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to demote a semantic agent to a syntactic oblique, sometimes even
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completely removing it from the sentence.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Maðrinn dragt fiskin frá vatnin
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| maðr-inn | drag-t | fisk-in | frá | vatn-in |
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| man.NOM-DEF.NOM | drag-IND.PST | fish-DEF.ACC | from | water-DEF.DAT |
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The man fished the fish from the water
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- Fiskinn var dragask frá vatnin
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| Fiskr-inn | var | drag-ask | frá | vatn-in |
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| fish.NOM-DEF.NOM | be.3s.IND.PST | drag-STG.PAS | from | water-DEF.DAT |
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The fish was fished from the water
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#+html: :::
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*** Modifiers :noexport:
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# - If you posit a morphosyntactic category of adjectives, give
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# evidence for not grouping theseforms with the verbs or nouns. What
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# characterizes a form as being an adjective in this language?
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# - How can you characterize semantically the class of concepts coded
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# by this formal category?
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# - Do adjectives agr
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# noun class)?
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# - What kind of syst
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# - How high can a fluent native speaker count without resorting
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# either to words from another language or to a generic word like
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# /many/? Exemplify the system up to this point.
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# - Do numerals agree with their head nouns (number, case, noun
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# class, ...)?
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**** Descriptive Adjectives :noexport:
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**** Non-Numeral Quantifiers :noexport:
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**** Numerals :noexport:
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*** Adverbs :noexport:
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# - What characterikes a form as being an adverb in this language? If
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# you posit a distinct class of adverbs, argue for why these forms
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# should not be treated as nouns, verbs, or adjectives.
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# - For each kind of adverb listed in this section, list a few members
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# of the type, and specify whether there are any restrictions
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# relavite to that type, e.g. where they can come in a clause, any
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# morphemes common to the type, etc.
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# - Are any of these classes of adverbs related to older
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# complement-taking (matrix) verbs?
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*** Adpositions :noexport:
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*** Grammatical Particules :noexport:
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** Constituants Order Typology
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*** Constituants Order in Main Clauses :noexport:
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# - What is the neutral order of free elements in the unit?
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# - Are there variations?
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# - How do the variant orders function?
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# - Specific to the main clause constituent order: What is the
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# pragmatically neutral order of constituents (A/S, P, and V) in
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# basic clauses of the language?
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*** Constituants Order in Nominal Clauses :noexport:
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# - Describe the order(s) of elements in the noun phrase.
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*** Constituants Order in Verbal Clauses :noexport:
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# - Where do auxliari
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# verb?
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# - Where do verb-phrase adverbs occur with respect to the verb and
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# auxiliaries?
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*** Adpositional Phrases :noexport:
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# - Is the language dominantly prepositional or post-positional? Give
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# examples.
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# - Do many adpositions come from nouns or verbs?
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*** Comparatives :noexport:
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# - Does the language have one or more grammaticalized comparative
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# constructions? If so, what is the order of the standard, the
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# marker and the quality by which an item is compared to the
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# standard?
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*** Questions
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# - In yes/no questions, if there is a question particle, where does
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# it occur?
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# - In information qu
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Questions in Eittlandic are formed by inverting the syntactic subject
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with its verb in a normal sentence. For example, the sentence /hann
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komr í dag með faðin hans/ (/he’s coming today with his father/) becomes
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a question when inverting /hann/ and /komr/. This is generally regarded as
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a formal way of forming questions.
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A more formal way of creating a question is by suffixing /-vit/ at the
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end of a verb without any change to the word order of the sentence. If
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there is any declension at the end of the verb, /-vit/ will bear it
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instead of the stem of the verb itself. It is somewhat similar to
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asking a question in English by simply raising the sentence’s tone.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Hann komr í dag með faðin hans
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| hann | kom-r | í dag | með | fað-in | hans |
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| 3s.m.NOM | come-s.PRES.IND | today | with | father.ACC-DEF | 3s.m.GEN |
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He’s coming with his father today.
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- Komr han í dag með faðin hans?
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| kom-r | hann | í dag | með | fað-in | hans |
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| come-s.PRES.IND | 3s.m.NOM | today | with | father.ACC-DEF | 3s.m.GEN |
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Is he coming with his father today?
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- Han komvitr í dag með maðin hans?
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| hann | kom-vit-r | í dag | með | fað-in | hans |
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| 3s.m.NOM | come-Q-s.PRES.IND | today | with | father.ACC-DEF | 3s.m.GEN |
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He’s coming with his father today?
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#+html: :::
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The verbs /ver(a)/ and /hav(a)/ both cannot use this construction.
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Instead, Eittlandic speakers may instead simply add /vit/ as a
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standalone word at the end of the question.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Hann er konung.
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| hann | er | konung |
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| 3s.m.NOM | be.3s.PRES.IND | king.ACC |
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He is the king.
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- Er hann konung?
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| er | hann | konung |
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| be.3s.PRES.IND | 3s.m.NOM | king.ACC |
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Is he the king?
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- Hann er konung vit?
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| hann | er | konung | vit |
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| 3s.m.NOM | be.3s.PRES.IND | king | Q |
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He is the king?
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#+html: :::
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This also applies to general questions as shown below, where the
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question word takes the place of either the syntactic patient or
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syntactic dative of the verb.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Ná hvar ert þú?
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| ná | hvar | ert | þú |
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| now | where | be.2s.PRES.IND | 2s.NOM |
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Where are you now?
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- Ná þú ert hver vit?
|
||
|
||
| ná | þú | ert | hvar | vit |
|
||
| now | 2s.NOM | be.2s.PRES.IND | where | Q |
|
||
|
||
You are where now?
|
||
#+html: :::
|
||
|
||
**** Yes/No questions
|
||
Yes/no questions are generally answered by /já/ or /nei/ (/yes/ or /no/
|
||
respectively), sometimes with a repeat of the core of the sentence to
|
||
confirm the anwser.
|
||
|
||
#+html: ::: tip Example
|
||
- Komr han í dag með faðin hans?
|
||
|
||
Is he coming today with his father?
|
||
|
||
- Nei, han komr eig
|
||
|
||
No, he’s not coming
|
||
or
|
||
- Já, han komr
|
||
|
||
Yes, he’s coming
|
||
#+html: :::
|
||
|
||
The interjections /já/ and /nei/ are often ambiguous when replying to a
|
||
question employing a negative verb and are often avoided; Eittlanders
|
||
will prefer to reply with part of or the entirety of the question with
|
||
either a negative marker or not to confirm or deny the assumption of
|
||
the question.
|
||
|
||
#+html: ::: tip Example
|
||
- Komr han eig í dag?
|
||
|
||
Is he not coming today?
|
||
|
||
- Han komr eig
|
||
|
||
He’s not coming
|
||
or
|
||
- Han komr
|
||
#+html: :::
|
||
|
||
Another strategy, a lot more common when replying to negative
|
||
questions, is to reply using counter-factual interjection /eng/ meaning
|
||
/yes/, while speakers will consider a simple /nei/ as an approbation of
|
||
the assumption of the question.
|
||
|
||
#+html: ::: tip Example
|
||
- Komr han eig í dag?
|
||
|
||
Is he not coming today?
|
||
|
||
- Nei (han komr eig)
|
||
|
||
No (he’s not coming)
|
||
or
|
||
- Áng (han komr)
|
||
|
||
Yes he is coming
|
||
#+html: :::
|
||
|
||
Similarly, when a question with a positive assumption is asked,
|
||
Eittlandic speakers can answer with a counter-factual /náng/ to insist
|
||
on its erroneous nature.
|
||
|
||
#+html: ::: tip Example
|
||
- Komr han eig í dag?
|
||
|
||
Is he not coming today?
|
||
|
||
- Náng (han komr eig)
|
||
|
||
Of course not (he’s not coming)
|
||
#+html: :::
|
||
|
||
Some yes/no questions are sometimes asked in a very reduced form,
|
||
without a full verbal sentence and only consisting of a noun phrase.
|
||
Think of questions like /Coffe?/ or /Another cookie?/ in English. Such
|
||
questions in Eittlandic require the final word /vit/.
|
||
|
||
#+html: ::: tip Example
|
||
- Té ell kafé vit?
|
||
|
||
Tea or coffe?
|
||
- Té, þakk.
|
||
|
||
Tea, please/thanks.
|
||
#+html: :::
|
||
|
||
**** General questions
|
||
General questions that are not yes/no questions will most of the time
|
||
begin with a question word such as /hvar/ (/who/), the equivalent of WH
|
||
words in English.
|
||
|
||
** Structure of a Nominal Group
|
||
*** Composed Words :noexport:
|
||
# - Is there noun-noun compounding that results in a noun (e.g.
|
||
# /windshield/)?
|
||
# - How do you know it is compounding?
|
||
# - Is there noun-verb (or verb-noun) compounding that results in a
|
||
# noun (e.g. /pickpocket/, /scarecrow/)?
|
||
# - Are these process
|
||
# can-opener)? How common is compounding?
|
||
*** Denominalization :noexport:
|
||
# - Are there any processes (productive or not) that form a verb from
|
||
# a noun?
|
||
# - An adjective from a noun?
|
||
# - An adverb from a noun?
|
||
*** Numbers :noexport:
|
||
# - Is number express
|
||
# - Is the distinction between singular and non-singular obligatory,
|
||
# optional, or completely absent in the noun phrase?
|
||
# - If number marking is “optional”, when does it tend to occur, and
|
||
# when does it tend not to occur?
|
||
# - If number marking is obligatory, is number overtly expressed for
|
||
# all noun phrases or only some subclasses of noun phrases, such as
|
||
# animate?
|
||
# - What non-singular distinctions are there?
|
||
*** Grammatical Case
|
||
# - Do nouns exhibit morphological case?
|
||
# - If so, what are the cases? (The functions of the cases will be
|
||
# elaborated in lat
|
||
**** Cases in Modern Eittlandic
|
||
Although seldom visible, as described in [[file:./syntax.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], cases still
|
||
remain part of the Eittlandic grammar, expressed through its syntax
|
||
rather than explicit marking on its nouns and adjectives. Four
|
||
different grammatical cases exist in this language: the *nominative*,
|
||
*accusative*, *genitive*, and *dative* case.
|
||
- The *nominative* case represents the subject of a sentence, that is,
|
||
the subject of intransitive clauses and the agent of transitive
|
||
clauses. As we’ll see below, it is morphologically marked only in
|
||
dialects other than Standard Eittlandic, and only if the word is a
|
||
strong masculine word.
|
||
- On the other hand *accusative*, like Old Norse, usually marks the
|
||
object of a verb, but it can also express time-related ideas such as
|
||
a duration in time, or after some prepositions. It is also the
|
||
default case when a noun has no clear status in a clause, and it can
|
||
as such serve as a vocative.
|
||
- *Dative* usually marks indirect objects of verbs in Old Norse, though
|
||
it can also often mark direct objects depending on the verb used.
|
||
|
||
**** Case Marking
|
||
Although present in Early Old Norse, the use of grammatical cases has
|
||
been on the decline since the Great Vowel Shift (see [[file:phonology.md#great-vowel-shift][Phonology: Great
|
||
Vowel Shift]]). Due to the general loss of word-final short vowels and
|
||
to regularization of its nouns, Eittlandic lost almost all of weak
|
||
nouns’ inflexions and a good amount in its strong nouns’ inflexions.
|
||
On top of this, the root of most nouns got regularized, getting rid of
|
||
former umlauts. Hence, while in Old Norse one might find the table
|
||
below presented in Cleasby and Vigfusson (1874), Modern Eittlandic is
|
||
simplified to the table following it.
|
||
|
||
#+name: tbl:old-norse-noun-inflexions
|
||
#+caption: 1st declension of strong nouns and declensions of masculine weak nouns in Old Norse
|
||
| / | <r> | | | | |
|
||
| | | Strong Masculine | Strong Feminine | Strong Neuter | Weak Masculine |
|
||
|---+------------+------------------+-----------------+---------------+----------------|
|
||
| | Sing. Nom. | heim-r | tíð | skip | tím-i |
|
||
| | Acc. | heim | tíð | skip | tím-a |
|
||
| | Dat. | heim-i | tíð | skip-i | tím-a |
|
||
| | Gen. | heim-s | tíð-ar | skip-s | tím-a |
|
||
| | Plur. Nom. | heim-ar | tíð-ir | skip | tím-ar |
|
||
| | Acc. | heim-a | tíð-ir | skip | tím-a |
|
||
| | Dat. | heim-um | tíð-um | skip-um | tím-um |
|
||
| | Gen. | heim-a | tíð-a | skip-a | tím-a |
|
||
|
||
#+name: tbl:eittlandic-example-noun-inflexions
|
||
#+caption: Declensions for strong and weak nouns in Modern Eittlandic
|
||
| / | <r> | | | |
|
||
| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter | Weak Nouns |
|
||
|---+------------+---------------+---------------+------------|
|
||
| | Sing. Nom. | heim-r | skip | tím |
|
||
| | Acc. | heim | skip | tím |
|
||
| | Dat. | heim | skip | tím |
|
||
| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s |
|
||
| | Plur. Nom. | heim-r | skip | tím-r |
|
||
| | Acc. | heim | skip | tím |
|
||
| | Dat. | heim-um | skip-um | tím-um |
|
||
| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s |
|
||
|
||
As you can see, a good amount of declensions disappeared from nouns,
|
||
with only four marked cases for strong common nouns and two for strong
|
||
neuter and weak nouns. The declension system completely merged weak
|
||
nouns which are no longer distinguished by gender. Strong masculine
|
||
and strong feminine also got merged into strong common.
|
||
|
||
Declensions are no longer productive in almost all Modern Eittlandic
|
||
dialects. They are still mostly used in formal and written speech, but
|
||
they are less and less used in less formal circumstances and in oral
|
||
speech. The Royal Academy for Literature, which authored Standard
|
||
Eittlandic, even recommends not using grammatical cases when using
|
||
this dialect as they are reduntand with other syntactic strategies.
|
||
While the recommendation is mostly followed, speakers still tend to
|
||
use the singular genetive declension oraly. Younger folks at the time
|
||
of writing even tend to regularize it as /-ar/ for strong neuter and
|
||
weak nouns.
|
||
|
||
One exception to declensions no longer being productive is in and
|
||
around the Hylfjaltr Kingdom exclave in southern Eittland where
|
||
speakers of its local dialect tend instead to favor strong nouns for
|
||
newer terms. Hence, while most dialects agree on “internet” (pl.nom
|
||
/internetr/, pl.dat /internetum/) being a weak noun, this dialect treats
|
||
it as either a strong feminine (sg.gen /internetar/, pl.nom&acc
|
||
/internetr/, pl.dat /internetum/) or a strong neuter (sg.gen /internets/,
|
||
pl.dat /internetum/) --- the difference is due to subdivisions in said
|
||
dialect, mainly between rural and urban areas favoring the former and
|
||
the latter respectively.
|
||
|
||
There are some regular exceptions to the declension system. The first
|
||
one, inherited from Old Norse, is the /-r/ suffix becoming /-n/ or /-l/ when
|
||
a noun ends with an «n» or an «l» respectively, hence the table below
|
||
showing the declensions of strong masculine /himn/ (/heaven/) and strong
|
||
feminine /hafn/ (/harbour/, /haven/).
|
||
#+name: tbl:irregular-noun-declensions
|
||
| <r> | | |
|
||
| | himn | hafn |
|
||
|------------+--------+--------|
|
||
| Sing. Nom. | himnn | hafnn |
|
||
| Acc. | himn | hafn |
|
||
| Dat. | himn | hafn |
|
||
| Gen. | himnar | hafnar |
|
||
| Plur. Nom. | himnn | hafnn |
|
||
| Acc. | himn | hafn |
|
||
| Dat. | himnum | hafnum |
|
||
| Gen. | himnar | hafnar |
|
||
|
||
During the last five centuries, the root of the word got regularized
|
||
so that only one or two forms are allowed. Due to umlaut or ablaut, it
|
||
is possible the main vowel of a word changes between its singular and
|
||
plural form, even sometimes affecting its dative form. These changes
|
||
are due to old vowels long gone since --- with most even gone by the
|
||
time of Old Norse. These changes mainly remains in a few common words.
|
||
The table below gives some examples of such irregularities. These
|
||
words are marked as irregular in the dictionary.
|
||
#+name: tbl:irregularities-root-nouns
|
||
| <r> | | | | |
|
||
| | kettle (m.) | foot (m.) | book (f.) | water (n.) |
|
||
|------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+------------|
|
||
| Sing. Nom. | ketll | fótr | bók | vatn |
|
||
| Acc. | ketl | fót | bók | vatn |
|
||
| Dat. | ketl | fót | bók | vatn |
|
||
| Gen. | ketlar | fótar | bókar | vatn |
|
||
| Plur. Nom. | katll | fœtr | bœkr | vótnn |
|
||
| Acc. | katl | fœt | bœkr | vótn |
|
||
| Dat. | katlum | fótum | bókum | vótnum |
|
||
| Gen. | katl | fœt | bœk | vótn |
|
||
|
||
*** Articles and Demonstratives
|
||
# - Do noun phrases have articles?
|
||
# - If so, are they obligatory or optional, and under what
|
||
# circumstances do they occur?
|
||
# - Are they separate words, or bound morphemes?
|
||
# - Is there a class of classes of demonstratives as distinct from
|
||
# articles?
|
||
# - How many degrees of distance are there in the system of
|
||
# demontsratives?
|
||
# - Are there other distinctions beside distances?
|
||
|
||
When the noun of a nominal group is not a mass noun or a proper noun,
|
||
an article must accompany it, except for indefinite plural nouns.
|
||
|
||
**** Indefinite Article
|
||
The indefinite article is /einn/, the same term as /one/ in Eittlandic. It
|
||
agrees in declension with its noun, though it is to be noted its
|
||
declension is irregular, as seen in table below. Similarly, other
|
||
numerals have declensions as discussed in [[file:word-structure-and-classes.md#numerals][Word Classes: Numerals]].
|
||
#+name: tbl:declension-einn
|
||
| | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
|
||
|------+-----------+----------+--------|
|
||
| Nom. | einn | ein | eit |
|
||
| Acc. | ein | ein | eit |
|
||
| Dat. | einn | ein | eit |
|
||
| Gen. | ein | einn | eits |
|
||
|
||
**** Definite articles
|
||
As in other scandinavian languages, definite articles in Eittlandic
|
||
act as suffixes to the noun and fully replace its declension as it has
|
||
case marking itself. The full declension table of definite articles
|
||
can be found in the table below. As we can see, the definite articles
|
||
underwent an important regularization as well as merging strong neuter
|
||
and weak nouns together.
|
||
#+name: tbl:definite-articles
|
||
| / | <r> | | |
|
||
| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter and Weak Nouns |
|
||
|---+------------+---------------+------------------------------|
|
||
| | Sing. Nom. | -(i)nn | -(i)t |
|
||
| | Acc. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
||
| | Dat. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
||
| | Gen. | -(i)ns | -(i)ts |
|
||
| | Plur. Nom. | -(i)nn | -(i)tr |
|
||
| | Acc. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
||
| | Dat. | -(i)num | -(i)tum |
|
||
| | Gen. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
||
|
||
The initial /i/ is only used when using the definite articles as a
|
||
suffix would cause a consonant cluster forbidden by Eittlandic
|
||
phonology, otherwise it is omitted. An example of the former case is
|
||
with /vatn/ (/water/) which becomes /vatnits/ when in its definite singular
|
||
genitive form, while /øy/ (/island/) becomes /øyns/ in the same form. Like
|
||
the indefinite article, the suffix agrees in gender, agreeing either
|
||
with strong masculine or feminine words (or as established before,
|
||
strong common) or with strong neuter and weak nouns.
|
||
|
||
The use of definite articles with nouns is further discussed in
|
||
[[file:./syntax.md#definiteness][Definiteness]].
|
||
|
||
*** Definiteness
|
||
Definiteness in Eittlandic serves multiple purposes. Its most obvious
|
||
one is to distinguish between an indefinite and a definite entity, as
|
||
in English /a dog/ or /the dog/, respectively /einn hundr/ and /hundinn/, as
|
||
discussed in [[file:./syntax.md#articles-and-demonstratives][Articles and Demonstratives]].
|
||
|
||
However, definiteness is also necessary with suffixed possessives and
|
||
demonstrative.
|
||
|
||
*** Possessives
|
||
# - How are possessors expressed in the noun phrase?
|
||
# - Do nouns agree with their possessors? Do possessors agree with
|
||
# possessed nouns? Neither, or both?
|
||
# - Is there a distinction between alienable and inalienable
|
||
# possesson?
|
||
# - Are there other types of possession?
|
||
# - When the possessor is a full noun, where does it usually come with
|
||
# respect to the possessed noun?
|
||
*** Gender
|
||
# - Is there a noun class system?
|
||
# - What are the classes and how are they manifested in the noun
|
||
# phrase?
|
||
# - What dimension of reality is most central to the noun class system
|
||
# (e.g. animacy, shape, function, etc.)? What other dimensions are
|
||
# relevant?
|
||
# - Do the classifiers occur with numerals? Adjectives? Verbs?
|
||
# - What is their function in these contexts?
|
||
Eittlandic inherited from Old Norse a gender system divided into three
|
||
genders: male, female, and neuter. Although the number of elements
|
||
marking it declined during its evolution, Eittlandic still marks
|
||
gender in its strong nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and to a certain
|
||
degree in its articles. However, as mentioned in [[file:./syntax.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], case
|
||
marking and by extensions gender marking is slowly disappearing in
|
||
Modern Eittlandic nouns and adjectives.
|
||
|
||
Due to the presence of declensions with strong nouns and adjectives,
|
||
its pronouns, and to a certain degree different articles, it can still
|
||
be said Eittlandic is a gendered language, although it doesn’t hold
|
||
much importance in its grammar anymore. Since strong nouns aren’t
|
||
productive anymore and weak nouns lost all obvious gender differences,
|
||
we can even consider gender as not productive anymore in Eittlandic
|
||
and bound to eventually disappear. In fact, the loss of gender is even
|
||
stronger in Standard Eittlandic due to the theoretical absence of
|
||
declensions in this dialect.
|
||
|
||
In case a strong noun is used with a strong adjective, both will agree
|
||
in number and gender.
|
||
|
||
#+html: ::: tip Example
|
||
- hvítr hund
|
||
| white.m.sg.acc | dog.m.sg.acc |
|
||
white dog
|
||
- langir tungir
|
||
| long.f.pl.acc | tongues.f.pl.acc |
|
||
long tongues
|
||
#+html: :::
|
||
|
||
*** Diminution and Augmentation :noexport:
|
||
# - Does the language employ diminutive and/or augmentative operators
|
||
# in the noun or noun phrase?
|
||
# - Questions to answ
|
||
# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the
|
||
# paradigm have to occur in every full noun phrase?
|
||
# - Is it productiv
|
||
# full noun phras
|
||
# one? (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more
|
||
# so than others.)
|
||
# - Is this operation primarily expressed lexically,
|
||
# morphologically, or analytically?
|
||
# - Where in the noun phrase is this operation likely to be located?
|
||
# - Can it occur in more than one place?
|
||
|
||
** Predicates and Linked Constructions :noexport:
|
||
*** Nominal Predicates
|
||
# - How are proper inclusion and equative predicates formed?
|
||
# - What restrictions are there, if any, on the TAM marking of such
|
||
# clauses?
|
||
*** Adjective Predicates
|
||
# - How are predicate adjective formed? (Include a separate section on
|
||
# predicate adjectives only if they are structurally distinct from
|
||
# predicate nominals.)
|
||
*** Locative Predicat
|
||
# - How are locational clauses (or predicate locatives) formed?
|
||
*** Existential Predicates
|
||
# - How are existential clauses formed? (Give examples in different
|
||
# tense/aspects, especially if there is significant variation.)
|
||
# - How are negative
|
||
# - Are there extended uses of existential morphology? (Provide
|
||
# pointers to other relevant sections of the grammar.)
|
||
*** Possessive Clauses
|
||
# - How are possessiv
|
||
** Verbal Groups Structure :noexport:
|
||
** Intransitive Clauses :noexport:
|
||
** Ditransitive Clauses :noexport:
|
||
** Dependent Type Clauses :noexport:
|
||
*** Non-Finite
|
||
*** Semi-Finite
|
||
*** Finite
|
||
** Grammatical Relationship :noexport:
|
||
# Examplify some simple intransitive, transitive, and ditransitive
|
||
# clauses. Three-argument clauses may not unequivocally exist.
|
||
# - What are the grammatical erlations of this language? Give
|
||
# morphosyntactic evidence for each one that you propose.
|
||
# - Subject?
|
||
# - Ergative?
|
||
# - Absolutive?
|
||
# - Direct object?
|
||
# - Indirect object?
|
||
# There are basically four possible sources of evidence for
|
||
# grammatical relations:
|
||
# - morphological case on NPs
|
||
# - person marking on verbs
|
||
# - constituent ord
|
||
# - some pragmatic hierarchy
|
||
# - Is the system of grammatical relations in basic (affirmative,
|
||
# declarative) clauses organized according to a
|
||
# nominative/accusative, ergative/absolutive, tripartite, or some
|
||
# other system?
|
||
# - Is there a split system for organizing grammatical relations? If
|
||
# so, what determin
|
||
# - Is there split instransitivity? If so, what semantic or
|
||
# discourse/pragmatic factor conditions the split?
|
||
# - Does the system for pronouns and/or person marking on verbs
|
||
# operate on the same basis as that of full NPs?
|
||
# - Are there different grammatical-relation systems depending on
|
||
# the clause type (e.g. main vs. dependent clauses, affirmative
|
||
# vs. negative clauses)?
|
||
# - Are there different grammatical-relation assignment systems
|
||
# depending on th
|
||
# - Are there any syntactic processes (e.g. conjunction reduction,
|
||
# relativization) that operate on an ergative/absolutive basis?
|
||
** Constructions Link :noexport:
|
||
** Valence Increase :noexport:
|
||
*** Causative
|
||
*** Applicative
|
||
*** Dative Shift
|
||
*** Dative Interest
|
||
*** External Possession
|
||
* Notes :noexport:
|
||
** Grammaticalization in Germanic Languages
|
||
:PROPERTIES:
|
||
:CAPTURED: [2021-01-02 sam. 14:32]
|
||
:END:
|
||
*** Nordic Languages
|
||
**** Danish
|
||
- *Reflexive* /-s/ (reflexive suffix) > *passive* (passive marker)
|
||
- *sit* /sidde/ (sit) > *continuous* /sidde + og/ (coordinating conjunction, ’and’) + head verb -> progressive aspect
|
||
|
||
**** Faroese
|
||
- *demonstrative* > *conjunction*
|
||
- *locative* > *a-possessive*
|
||
|
||
**** Icelandic
|
||
- *back* (body part) /bak/ > *after* /bak(i)/
|
||
- *back* (body part) /bak/ > *behind* /(að) bak(i)/
|
||
- *circle* /hringur/ > *around* /kring/
|
||
- *environs* (vinicity) /(um)hverfi/ > *around* (spatial) /umhverfis/
|
||
- *keep* /halda/ (to hold) > *continuous* /halda áfram að + INF/ (to continue to)
|
||
- *man* /maður/ (man) > *indefinite pronoun* /maður/ (someone)
|
||
|
||
**** Norwegian
|
||
- *dative* > *a-possessive*
|
||
- *intensive-refl* /selv/ > *even*
|
||
|
||
**** Swedish
|
||
- *house* /hus/ (house) > *locative* /hos/ (at, next to)
|
||
- *keep* /hålla på att/ (hold) > *continuous*
|
||
- *simile* /liksom/ (like, as) > *quotative* /liksom/ (nonverbatim quotative)
|
||
|
||
** Word order:
|
||
Postpositional:
|
||
- AdjN
|
||
- NRel
|
||
- DemN
|
||
- NumN and NNum
|
||
- PossN and NPoss (mín katt & katten mín)
|
||
- GenN
|
||
|
||
** Genitive
|
||
In the genitive noun phrase, the genetive part is declined at the
|
||
genitive case, which cannot have a relative proposition. The noun
|
||
phrase that characterizes the genitive is in the nominative case.
|
||
|
||
Example:
|
||
- My black and white cat’s big green eyes
|
||
|
||
Mín svar
|