312 lines
14 KiB
Org Mode
312 lines
14 KiB
Org Mode
#+setupfile: ../headers
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* Syntax
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** World Classes
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*** Nouns
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# - What are the distributional properties of nouns?
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# - What are the structural properties of nouns?
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# - What are the major formally distinct subcategories of nouns?
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# - What is the basic structure of the noun word (for polysynthetic
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# languages) and/or noun phrases (for more isolating languages)?
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Nouns in Proto-Ñyqy generally refer to defined entities, such as
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objects, people, concepts, or events. Regardless of their role during
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locution, a noun bears no morphological information such as its
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syntactic role or its number. However, nouns can associate with each
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other and act as adjectives.
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# More on that in
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# §[[#Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Descriptive-Adjectives-pcpelau058j0]].
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Noun phrases in Proto-Ñyqy are head-first, meaning the noun in noun
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phrases come relatively early although the former is built around the
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former and not exclusively after it. Noun phrases are mainly found as
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agents or patients of a sentence, but they can also be found in
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genitive and dative constructions.
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The nouns could most likely take genitive pronouns, but how they
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interacted exactly is yet unsure. The
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**** Countables and Uncountables :noexport:
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**** Proper Nouns :noexport:
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*** Pronouns and Anaphoric Clitics
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# - Does the language have free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics?
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# (These are distinct from grammatical agreement.)
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# - Give a chart of the free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics.
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**** Personal Pronouns
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It seems only three pronouns existed in Proto-Ñyqy, one for each of
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the persons you would find in a typical language, as shown below.
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#+name: table:pronouns
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#+caption: Proto-Ñyqy pronouns
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| Person | Pronoun |
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|--------+-----------|
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| 1 | {{{recon(qy)}}} |
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| 2 | {{{recon(bú)}}} |
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| 3 | {{{recon(zø)}}} |
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It appears Proto-Ñyqy pronouns did not have any morphological rule to
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make them agree in number and due to the apparent lack of gender
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neither did they agree with it. However, it is possible that at some
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stage of the development of the language, Proto-Ñyqy began affixing
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cardinal numbers in order to its pronouns up until the number “six”
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{{{recon(ñy)}}} which would have marked a general plural. It is very much
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possible all numbers up to {{{recon(ñy)}}} were used with pronouns, however
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only remains of it as well as {{{recon(qi)}}} (/two/) for some dual or paucal,
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and in the case of the Tiltinian family {{{recon(nø)}}} (/three/) was used for
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trial and later on for paucal. No remains of {{{recon(gø)}}}, {{{recon(co)}}} or
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any number higher than {{{recon(ñy)}}} is found in its daughter languages.
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It is also unlikely {{{recon(mi)}}} (/one/) was ever used to mark the
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singular, or at least its usage never persisted in its recorded
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daughter languages as it cannot be reconstructed with our current
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knowledge.
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# The order in which these cardinal numbers are affixed to
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# the pronoun depend on the numbers’ word order described in
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# [[#Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Numerals-4gvelau058j0]].
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- {{{recon(møgusqim qy ij)}}}
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village towards 1sg go
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I’m going to the village
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- {{{recon(møgusqim qyqi ij)}}}
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village towards 1 two/du go
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We both are going to the village
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- {{{recon(møgusqim qynø ij)}}}
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village towards 1 3/tri/pauc go
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We three are going to the village
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- {{{recon(møgusqim ñyqy ij)}}}
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village towards six/pl 1 go
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We are going to the village
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It doesn’t appear either that there was any morphology associated to
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their grammatical case. All of its daughter languages have at least a
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distinction between nominative, accusative, and genitive pronouns, but
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it appears they all evolved after the Proto-Ñyqy breakup, with no
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relation between the main daughter language families. The best example
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is the striking difference between the Andelian and the Mojhal
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families despite the fact they both come from Proto-Mojhal-Andelian
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which is the earliest known language to split off from Proto-Ñyqy, as
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well as Proto-Tiltinian and Old Pritian which again have no
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similarities regarding their pronoun declensions. The only common
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roots found are these three pronouns described in [[./syntax.md#personal-pronouns][Personal Pronouns]].
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Personal pronouns are free pronouns which do not need to be bound to
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other elements in a sentence.
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1. {{{recon(qibú qy qe)}}}
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du 2 1sg see
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I see them both
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2. {{{recon(qyim ñocm qe)}}}
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1sg DAT someone see
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Does anyone see me?
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{{{recon(ee qy)}}}
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yes 1sg
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Yes, me.
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**** Demonstrative Pronouns
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Four levels of demonstratives seems to have existed in Proto-Ñyqy:
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- {{{recon(bœce)}}} :: near the speaker
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- {{{recon(pue)}}} :: near the interlocutor
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- {{{recon(yqe)}}} and {{{recon(jœe)}}} :: distant from the speakers
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It is interesting to see here a common pattern among languages which
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is demonstratives pronouns coming from words meaning “here” or
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“there”. In that case, these pronouns are derived from {{{recon(bœc)}}},
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{{{recon(pu)}}}, {{{recon(yq)}}}, and {{{recon(jœ)}}}.
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We are not sure about the difference between {{{recon(yq)}}} and {{{recon(jœ)}}}.
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It is theorized they had differences in distance between the element
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described by the pronoun and the speakers, maybe one describing
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something that could be seen and the other not. In any case, only one
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of the two survived in each language family so we cannot compare their
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use in documented languages.
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**** Possessive Pronouns :noexport:
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*** Verbs :noexport:
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# - What are the distributional properties of verbs?
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# - What are the structural properties of verbs?
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# - What are the major subclasses of verbs?
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# - Describe the order of various verbal operators within the verbal
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# - word or verb phrase.
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# - Give charts of the various paradigms, e.g. person marking,
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# - tense/aspect/mode, etc. Indicate major allomorphic variants.
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# - Are directional and/or locational notions expressed in the verb or
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# - verb phrase at all?
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# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the
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# paradigm have to occur in every finite verb or verb phrase?
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# - Is it productive, i.e. can the operation be specified for al
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# verb stems, and does it have the same meaning with each one?
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# (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more
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# productive than others.)
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# - Is this operation primarily coded morphologically, analytically,
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# or lexically? Are there any exceptions to the general case?
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# - Where in the verb phrase or verbal word is this operation likely
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# to appear? Can it occur in more than one place?
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**** Verbal Structure
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**** Verbal Derivations
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**** Verbal Inflexions
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*** Modifiers :noexport:
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# - If you posit a morphosyntactic category of adjectives, give
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# evidence for not grouping theseforms with the verbs or nouns. What
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# characterizes a form as being an adjective in this language?
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# - How can you characterize semantically the class of concepts coded
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# by this formal category?
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# - Do adjectives agree with their heads (e.g. in number, case, and/or
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# noun class)?
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# - What kind of system does the language employ for counting?
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# - How high can a fluent native speaker count without resorting
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# either to words from another language or to a generic word like
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# /many/? Exemplify the system up to this point.
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# - Do numerals agree with their head nouns (number, case, noun
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# class, ...)?
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**** Descriptive Adjectives
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**** Non-Numeral Quantifiers
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**** Numerals
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*** Adverbs :noexport:
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# - What characterikes a form as being an adverb in this language? If
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# you posit a distinct class of adverbs, argue for why these forms
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# should not be treated as nouns, verbs, or adjectives.
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# - For each kind of adverb listed in this section, list a few members
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# of the type, and specify whether there are any restrictions
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# relavite to that type, e.g. where they can come in a clause, any
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# morphemes common to the type, etc.
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# - Are any of these classes of adverbs related to older
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# complement-taking (matrix) verbs?
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*** Adpositions :noexport:
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*** Grammatical Particules :noexport:
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** Constituants Order Typology :noexport:
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*** Constituants Order in Main Clauses
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# - What is the neutral order of free elements in the unit?
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# - Are there variations?
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# - How do the variant orders function?
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# - Specific to the main clause constituent order: What is the
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# pragmatically neutral order of constituents (A/S, P, and V) in
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# basic clauses of the language?
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*** Constituants Order in Nominal Clauses
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# - Describe the order(s) of elements in the noun phrase.
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*** Constituants Order in Verbal Clauses
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# - Where do auxliaries occur in relation to the semantically “main”
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# verb?
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# - Where do verb-phrase adverbs occur with respect to the verb and
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# auxiliaries?
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*** Adpositional Phrases
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# - Is the language dominantly prepositional or post-positional? Give
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# examples.
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# - Do many adpositions come from nouns or verbs?
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*** Comparatives
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# - Does the language have one or more grammaticalized comparative
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# constructions? If so, what is the order of the standard, the
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# marker and the quality by which an item is compared to the
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# standard?
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*** Questions
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# - In yes/no questions, if there is a question particle, where does
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# it occur?
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# - In information questions, where does the question word occur?
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** Structure of a Nominal Group :noexport:
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*** Composed Words
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# - Is there noun-noun compounding that results in a noun (e.g.
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# /windshield/)?
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# - How do you know it is compounding?
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# - Is there noun-verb (or verb-noun) compounding that results in a
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# noun (e.g. /pickpocket/, /scarecrow/)?
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# - Are these processes productive (like noun-verb in English
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# can-opener)? How common is compounding?
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*** Denominalization
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# - Are there any processes (productive or not) that form a verb from
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# a noun?
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# - An adjective from a noun?
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# - An adverb from a noun?
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*** Numbers
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# - Is number expressed in the noun phrase?
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# - Is the distinction between singular and non-singular obligatory,
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# optional, or completely absent in the noun phrase?
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# - If number marking is “optional”, when does it tend to occur, and
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# when does it tend not to occur?
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# - If number marking is obligatory, is number overtly expressed for
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# all noun phrases or only some subclasses of noun phrases, such as
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# animate?
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# - What non-singular distinctions are there?
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*** Grammatical Case
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# - Do nouns exhibit morphological case?
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# - If so, what are the cases? (The functions of the cases will be
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# elaborated in later sections)
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*** Articles and Demonstratives
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# - Do noun phrases have articles?
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# - If so, are they obligatory or optional, and under what
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# circumstances do they occur?
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# - Are they separate words, or bound morphemes?
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# - Is there a class of classes of demonstratives as distinct from
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# articles?
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# - How many degrees of distance are there in the system of
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# demontsratives?
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# - Are there other distinctions beside distances?
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*** Possessives
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# - How are possessors expressed in the noun phrase?
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# - Do nouns agree with their possessors? Do possessors agree with
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# possessed nouns? Neither, or both?
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# - Is there a distinction between alienable and inalienable
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# possesson?
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# - Are there other types of possession?
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# - When the possessor is a full noun, where does it usually come with
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# respect to the possessed noun?
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*** Classes (including Gender)
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# - Is there a noun class system?
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# - What are the classes and how are they manifested in the noun
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# phrase?
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# - What dimension of reality is most central to the noun class system
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# (e.g. animacy, shape, function, etc.)? What other dimensions are
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# relevant?
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# - Do the classifiers occur with numerals? Adjectives? Verbs?
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# - What is their function in these contexts?
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*** Diminution/Augmentation
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# - Does the language employ diminutive and/or augmentative operators
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# in the noun or noun phrase?
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# - Questions to answer for all nominal operations:
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# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the
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# paradigm have to occur in every full noun phrase?
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# - Is it productive, i.e. can the operation be specified for all
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# full noun phrases and does it have the same meaning with each
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# one? (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more
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# so than others.)
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# - Is this operation primarily expressed lexically,
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# morphologically, or analytically?
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# - Where in the noun phrase is this operation likely to be located?
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# - Can it occur in more than one place?
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** Predicates and Linked Constructions :noexport:
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*** Nominal Predicates
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# - How are proper inclusion and equative predicates formed?
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# - What restrictions are there, if any, on the TAM marking of such
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# clauses?
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*** Adjective Predicates
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# - How are predicate adjective formed? (Include a separate section on
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# predicate adjectives only if they are structurally distinct from
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# predicate nominals.)
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*** Locative Predicates
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# - How are locational clauses (or predicate locatives) formed?
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*** Existential Predicates
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# - How are existential clauses formed? (Give examples in different
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# tense/aspects, especially if there is significant variation.)
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# - How are negative existentials formed?
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# - Are there extended uses of existential morphology? (Provide
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# pointers to other relevant sections of the grammar.)
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*** Possessive Clauses
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# - How are possessive clauses formed?
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** Verbal Groups Structure :noexport:
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** Intransitive Clauses :noexport:
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** Ditransitive Clauses :noexport:
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** Dependent Type Clauses :noexport:
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*** Non-Finite
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*** Semi-Finite
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*** Finite
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