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@ -576,9 +576,9 @@ examples are given using the verbs /far(a)/ (/to go/, a strong verb), and
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| <c> | | | | |
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| <c> | | | | |
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| person | | Ind. Pres. | Subj. Pres. | Ind. and Subj. Past |
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| person | | Ind. Pres. | Subj. Pres. | Ind. and Subj. Past |
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|--------+---+------------+-------------+---------------------|
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|--------+---+------------+-------------+---------------------|
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| 1s | | -(V)r | -ir | -t |
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| 1s | | -r | -ir | -t |
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| 2s | | -(V)r | -ir | -t |
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| 2s | | -r | -ir | -t |
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| 3s | | -(V)r | -ir | -t |
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| 3s | | -r | -ir | -t |
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| 1p | | -um | -im | -um |
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| 1p | | -um | -im | -um |
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| 2p | | -ið | -ið | -uð |
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| 2p | | -ið | -ið | -uð |
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| 3p | | -ið | -ið | -uð |
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| 3p | | -ið | -ið | -uð |
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@ -712,7 +712,7 @@ completely removing it from the sentence.
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The fish was fished from the water
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The fish was fished from the water
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#+html: :::
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#+html: :::
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*** Modifiers
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*** Modifiers :noexport:
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# - If you posit a morphosyntactic category of adjectives, give
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# - If you posit a morphosyntactic category of adjectives, give
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# evidence for not grouping these forms with the verbs or nouns. What
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# evidence for not grouping these forms with the verbs or nouns. What
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# characterizes a form as being an adjective in this language?
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# characterizes a form as being an adjective in this language?
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@ -726,162 +726,10 @@ completely removing it from the sentence.
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# /many/? Exemplify the system up to this point.
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# /many/? Exemplify the system up to this point.
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# - Do numerals agree with their head nouns (number, case, noun
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# - Do numerals agree with their head nouns (number, case, noun
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# class, ...)?
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# class, ...)?
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**** Descriptive Adjectives
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**** Descriptive Adjectives :noexport:
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Similarly to verbs, adjectives in Eittlandic underwent a
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Similarly to verbs, adjectives in Eittlandic underwent
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simplification since Early Old Norse. They now all inflect the same
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way, as the difference between strong and weak adjectives disappeared
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over the years. It is also worth noting distiction between masculine
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and feminine disappeared, merging into a common gender, while neuter
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remains distinct.
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#+name: adjectives-declensions
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#+caption: Declension of adjectives in Eittlandic
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| / | <r> | | |
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| | | Common | Neuter |
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|---+---------+--------+--------|
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| | Sg.Nom. | -r | -t |
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| | Acc. | | -t |
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| | Dat. | -um | -um |
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| | Gen. | -s | -s |
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| | Pl.Nom. | -ar | |
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| | Acc. | | |
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| | Dat. | -um | -um |
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| | Gen. | -ar | -r |
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If an adjective root ends with a rounded vowel, all /-um/ and /-ar/
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endings become /-vum/ or /-var/ instead respectively. Otherwise, the
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consonant is doubled before the declension’s vowel if there is one.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Meðr er Hindirar, þrírr er Hindurar
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The men are Hindi, three are Hindu
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#+html: :::
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The adjectives agree in declension, number, and gender with the noun
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or noun phrase they describe. In terms of word order, they always
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precede the noun or noun phrase, regardles whether the noun is in its
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indefinite or definite form.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Latr káttinn kúrar hjá opin dyrin
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The lazy cat naps by the open door
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| lat-r | kátt-inn | kúr-ar | hjá | opin | dyr-in |
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| lazy-SG.NOM | cat-DEF.SG.NOM | nap-3sg.IND.PRES | by | open.SG.ACC | door-DEF.SG.ACC |
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- Rauðt dyrit ok smár vindaugat er opinn
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The red door and the small windows are open
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| rauð-t | dyr-it | ok | smár | vindaug-at | er | opin-n |
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| red-SG.N.NOM | door-DEF.SG.NOM | and | small.PL.N.NOM | window-DEF.PL.NOM | to.be.3pl.IND.PRES | open-PL.N.ACC |
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#+html: :::
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What you will find most often in Eittlandic dictionaries is the
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accusative singular common form of the adjectives, which is its
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unmarked form, while some older or more traditional dictionaries will
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instead use their nominative singular common form.
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*Standard Eittlandic* does not use declensions and will always use the
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unmarked adjective root instead. A few dialects do not use adjective
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declensions either, but they are relatively rare, such as the dialects
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found in the Úlfsaug valley in Northeastern Fjallheim.
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**** Participal Adjectives
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Taking the root of a verb and adding the declension of definite
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articles creates participal adjectives. For instance, /sov(a)/ (to
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sleep) becomes /sovin/ (sleepy) while /hleð(a)/ (to make noise) becomes
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/hleðin/ (noisy).
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#+name: participal-adj-example-sov-sovin
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#+caption: Example of participal adjective using /sov(a)/
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| / | <r> | | |
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| | | Common | Neuter |
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|---+---------+---------+---------|
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| | Sg.Nom. | sovinn | sovit |
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| | Acc. | sovin | sovit |
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| | Dat. | sovin | sovit |
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| | Gen. | sovins | sovits |
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| | Pl.Nom. | sovinn | sovitr |
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| | Acc. | sovin | sovit |
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| | Dat. | sovinum | sovitum |
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| | Gen. | sovin | sovit |
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Þat er eit hleðit bil ná!
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This is one noisy car, isn’t it‽
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#+html: :::
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**** Possessive Adjectives
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**** Possessive Adjectives
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Similarly to [[file:./grammar.md#possessive-pronouns][possessive pronouns]], possessive adjectives mark ownership
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or relationship from an element with another. However, possessive
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adjectives modify a noun or noun phrase and are not free forms.
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Possessive adjectives are very similar to possessive pronouns, their
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base root is the same but possessive adjectives agree with the
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possessed element in person, number, gender, and declension. Agreement
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in number follows both the number of possessor and possessed. Hence,
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/várt/ is a possessive adjectives marking one nominative element being
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possessed by several people in the first person, while /mínar/ is a
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possessive adjective marking several nominative elements being
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possessed by one individual in the first person.
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#+name: possessive-adjectives-1-and-2
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#+caption: Possessive adjectives for the first and second person
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| / | <r> | | | | | | | | |
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| | | 1s C. | 1s N. | 2s C. | 2s N. | 1p C. | 1p N. | 2p C. | 2p N. |
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|---+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------|
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| | Sg.Nom. | mínn | mínt | þínn | þínt | várr | várt | yðr | yðt |
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| | Acc. | mín | mínt | þín | þínt | vár | várt | yð | yðt |
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| | Dat. | mínum | mínum | þínum | þínum | várum | várum | yðum | yðum |
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| | Gen. | míns | míns | þíns | þíns | várs | várs | yðs | yðs |
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| | Pl.Nom. | mínar | mín | þínar | þín | várar | vár | yðar | yð |
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| | Acc. | mín | mín | þín | þín | vár | vár | yð | yð |
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| | Dat. | mínum | mínum | þínum | þínum | várum | várum | yðum | yðum |
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| | Gen. | mínar | mínn | þínar | þínn | várar | várr | yðar | yðr |
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In the third person, gender of the possessor is also followed by the
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possessive adjective when there is a singular possessor. This means
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the gender of the adjectives must also agree both with the gender of
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the possessor and the possessed when the former is singular.
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#+name: possessive-adjectives-3
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#+caption: Possessive adjectives for the third person
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| / | <r> | | | | | | |
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| | | 3sc C. | 3sc N. | 3sn C. | 3sn N. | 3p C. | 3p N. |
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|---+---------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------|
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| | Sg.Nom. | hennar | hent | þass | þast | þeirr | þeirt |
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| | Acc. | henn | hent | þass | þast | þeir | þeirt |
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| | Dat. | hennum | henum | þasum | þasum | þeirum | þeirum |
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| | Gen. | hens | hens | þass | þass | þeirs | þeirs |
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| | Pl.Nom. | hennar | henn | þasar | þass | þeirar | þeir |
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| | Acc. | henn | henn | þass | þass | þeir | þeir |
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| | Dat. | hennum | hennum | þasum | þasum | þeirum | þeirum |
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| | Gen. | hennar | henn | þasar | þass | þeirar | þeirr |
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#+html: ::: tip Examples
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- Hundinn þeirar hlaupið in í parkit
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Their dogs are running in the park (i.e. several people’s dogs)
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| hund-r | þeir-ar | hlaup-ið | in | í | park-it |
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| dog-pl.NOM | 3sc.c.ADJ.POSS-pl.NOM | run-3p.PRES.IND | in | DAT | park-DET.sg.DAT |
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- Ek kent sonin yðum historja
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I taught your son history
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| ek | ken-t | son-in | yð-um | historja |
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| 1sg.NOM | teach-1s.PST.IND | son-DEF.DAT.sg | 2p.POSS-DAT.SG | history.ACC |
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- Mínn káttr es svartr með ein hvít flekk á hennum bjálf, á hennum hóst.
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My cat is black with a white spot on her fur, on her chest.
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| mín-n | kátt-r | es | svart-r | með | ein | hvít | flekk | á | hen-num | bjálf | á | hen-num | hóst |
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| 1sg.POSS-sg.NOM.C | cat-sg.NOM | 3sg.PRES.IND | black-sg.NOM | with | one.ACC | white.ACC | spot.ACC | DAT | 3sg.POSS-sg.DAT.C | fur.sg.ACC | DAT | 3sg.POSS.sg.DAT.C | chest.sg.ACC |
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#+html: :::
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**** Non-Numeral Quantifiers :noexport:
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**** Non-Numeral Quantifiers :noexport:
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**** Numerals :noexport:
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**** Numerals :noexport:
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@ -938,21 +786,21 @@ instead of the stem of the verb itself. It is somewhat similar to
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asking a question in English by simply raising the sentence’s tone.
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asking a question in English by simply raising the sentence’s tone.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Hann komar í dag með faðin hans
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- Hann komr í dag með faðin hans
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| hann | kom-ar | í dag | með | fað-in | hans |
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| hann | kom-r | í dag | með | fað-in | hans |
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| 3s.m.NOM | come-s.PRES.IND | today | with | father.ACC-DEF | 3s.m.GEN |
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| 3s.m.NOM | come-s.PRES.IND | today | with | father.ACC-DEF | 3s.m.GEN |
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He’s coming with his father today.
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He’s coming with his father today.
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- Komar han í dag með faðin hans?
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- Komr han í dag með faðin hans?
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| kom-ar | hann | í dag | með | fað-in | hans |
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| kom-r | hann | í dag | með | fað-in | hans |
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| come-s.PRES.IND | 3s.m.NOM | today | with | father.ACC-DEF | 3s.m.GEN |
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| come-s.PRES.IND | 3s.m.NOM | today | with | father.ACC-DEF | 3s.m.GEN |
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Is he coming with his father today?
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Is he coming with his father today?
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- Han komavitr í dag með maðin hans?
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- Han komvitr í dag með maðin hans?
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| hann | koma-vit-r | í dag | með | fað-in | hans |
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| hann | kom-vit-r | í dag | með | fað-in | hans |
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| 3s.m.NOM | come-Q-s.PRES.IND | today | with | father.ACC-DEF | 3s.m.GEN |
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| 3s.m.NOM | come-Q-s.PRES.IND | today | with | father.ACC-DEF | 3s.m.GEN |
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He’s coming with his father today?
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He’s coming with his father today?
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@ -963,9 +811,9 @@ Instead, Eittlandic speakers may instead simply add /vit/ as a
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standalone word at the end of the question.
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standalone word at the end of the question.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Hann es konung.
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- Hann er konung.
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| hann | es | konung |
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| hann | er | konung |
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| 3s.m.NOM | be.3s.PRES.IND | king.ACC |
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| 3s.m.NOM | be.3s.PRES.IND | king.ACC |
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He is the king.
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He is the king.
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@ -988,18 +836,18 @@ question word takes the place of either the syntactic patient or
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syntactic dative of the verb.
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syntactic dative of the verb.
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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#+html: ::: tip Example
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- Hvar est þú?
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- Ná hvar ert þú?
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| hvar | est | þú |
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| ná | hvar | ert | þú |
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| where | be.2s.PRES.IND | 2s.NOM |
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| now | where | be.2s.PRES.IND | 2s.NOM |
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Where are you?
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Where are you now?
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- Þú est hver vit?
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- Ná þú ert hver vit?
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| þú | est | hvar | vit |
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| ná | þú | ert | hvar | vit |
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| 2s.NOM | be.2s.PRES.IND | where | Q |
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| now | 2s.NOM | be.2s.PRES.IND | where | Q |
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Where are you? / Where you at?
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You are where now?
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#+html: :::
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#+html: :::
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||||||
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**** Yes/No questions
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**** Yes/No questions
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@ -1153,12 +1001,12 @@ simplified to the table following it.
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#+caption: 1st declension of strong nouns and declensions of masculine weak nouns in Old Norse
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#+caption: 1st declension of strong nouns and declensions of masculine weak nouns in Old Norse
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| / | <r> | | | | |
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| / | <r> | | | | |
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| | | Strong Masculine | Strong Feminine | Strong Neuter | Weak Masculine |
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| | | Strong Masculine | Strong Feminine | Strong Neuter | Weak Masculine |
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|---+---------+------------------+-----------------+---------------+----------------|
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|---+------------+------------------+-----------------+---------------+----------------|
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| | Sg.Nom. | heim-r | tíð | skip | tím-i |
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| | Sing. Nom. | heim-r | tíð | skip | tím-i |
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| | Acc. | heim | tíð | skip | tím-a |
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| | Acc. | heim | tíð | skip | tím-a |
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| | Dat. | heim-i | tíð | skip-i | tím-a |
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| | Dat. | heim-i | tíð | skip-i | tím-a |
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| | Gen. | heim-s | tíð-ar | skip-s | tím-a |
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| | Gen. | heim-s | tíð-ar | skip-s | tím-a |
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| | Pl.Nom. | heim-ar | tíð-ir | skip | tím-ar |
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| | Plur. Nom. | heim-ar | tíð-ir | skip | tím-ar |
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| | Acc. | heim-a | tíð-ir | skip | tím-a |
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| | Acc. | heim-a | tíð-ir | skip | tím-a |
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| | Dat. | heim-um | tíð-um | skip-um | tím-um |
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| | Dat. | heim-um | tíð-um | skip-um | tím-um |
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| | Gen. | heim-a | tíð-a | skip-a | tím-a |
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| | Gen. | heim-a | tíð-a | skip-a | tím-a |
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@ -1167,12 +1015,12 @@ simplified to the table following it.
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#+caption: Declensions for strong and weak nouns in Modern Eittlandic
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#+caption: Declensions for strong and weak nouns in Modern Eittlandic
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| / | <r> | | | |
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| / | <r> | | | |
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| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter | Weak Nouns |
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| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter | Weak Nouns |
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|---+---------+---------------+---------------+------------|
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|---+------------+---------------+---------------+------------|
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| | Sg.Nom. | heim-r | skip | tím |
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| | Sing. Nom. | heim-r | skip | tím |
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| | Acc. | heim | skip | tím |
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| | Acc. | heim | skip | tím |
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| | Dat. | heim | skip | tím |
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| | Dat. | heim | skip | tím |
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| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s |
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| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s |
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| | Pl.Nom. | heim-r | skip | tím-r |
|
| | Plur. Nom. | heim-r | skip | tím-r |
|
||||||
| | Acc. | heim | skip | tím |
|
| | Acc. | heim | skip | tím |
|
||||||
| | Dat. | heim-um | skip-um | tím-um |
|
| | Dat. | heim-um | skip-um | tím-um |
|
||||||
| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s |
|
| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s |
|
||||||
@ -1189,12 +1037,12 @@ We end up with the following declension system in Eittlandic.
|
|||||||
#+caption: Eittlandic noun inflexion
|
#+caption: Eittlandic noun inflexion
|
||||||
| / | <r> | | | |
|
| / | <r> | | | |
|
||||||
| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter | Weak Nouns |
|
| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter | Weak Nouns |
|
||||||
|---+---------+---------------+---------------+------------|
|
|---+------------+---------------+---------------+------------|
|
||||||
| | Sg.Nom. | -r | | |
|
| | Sing. Nom. | -r | | |
|
||||||
| | Acc. | | | |
|
| | Acc. | | | |
|
||||||
| | Dat. | | | |
|
| | Dat. | | | |
|
||||||
| | Gen. | -(a)r | -s | -s |
|
| | Gen. | -(a)r | -s | -s |
|
||||||
| | Pl.Nom. | -r | | -r |
|
| | Plur. Nom. | -r | | -r |
|
||||||
| | Acc. | | | |
|
| | Acc. | | | |
|
||||||
| | Dat. | -um | -um | -um |
|
| | Dat. | -um | -um | -um |
|
||||||
| | Gen. | -(a)r | -s | -s |
|
| | Gen. | -(a)r | -s | -s |
|
||||||
@ -1238,12 +1086,12 @@ feminine /hafn/ (/harbour/, /haven/).
|
|||||||
#+name: tbl:irregular-noun-declensions
|
#+name: tbl:irregular-noun-declensions
|
||||||
| <r> | | |
|
| <r> | | |
|
||||||
| | himn | hafn |
|
| | himn | hafn |
|
||||||
|---------+--------+--------|
|
|------------+--------+--------|
|
||||||
| Sg.Nom. | himnn | hafnn |
|
| Sing. Nom. | himnn | hafnn |
|
||||||
| Acc. | himn | hafn |
|
| Acc. | himn | hafn |
|
||||||
| Dat. | himn | hafn |
|
| Dat. | himn | hafn |
|
||||||
| Gen. | himnar | hafnar |
|
| Gen. | himnar | hafnar |
|
||||||
| Pl.Nom. | himnn | hafnn |
|
| Plur. Nom. | himnn | hafnn |
|
||||||
| Acc. | himn | hafn |
|
| Acc. | himn | hafn |
|
||||||
| Dat. | himnum | hafnum |
|
| Dat. | himnum | hafnum |
|
||||||
| Gen. | himnar | hafnar |
|
| Gen. | himnar | hafnar |
|
||||||
@ -1259,12 +1107,12 @@ words are marked as irregular in the dictionary.
|
|||||||
#+name: tbl:irregularities-root-nouns
|
#+name: tbl:irregularities-root-nouns
|
||||||
| <r> | | | | |
|
| <r> | | | | |
|
||||||
| | kettle (m.) | foot (m.) | book (f.) | water (n.) |
|
| | kettle (m.) | foot (m.) | book (f.) | water (n.) |
|
||||||
|---------+-------------+-----------+-----------+------------|
|
|------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+------------|
|
||||||
| Sg.Nom. | ketll | fótr | bók | vatn |
|
| Sing. Nom. | ketll | fótr | bók | vatn |
|
||||||
| Acc. | ketl | fót | bók | vatn |
|
| Acc. | ketl | fót | bók | vatn |
|
||||||
| Dat. | ketl | fót | bók | vatn |
|
| Dat. | ketl | fót | bók | vatn |
|
||||||
| Gen. | ketlar | fótar | bókar | vatn |
|
| Gen. | ketlar | fótar | bókar | vatn |
|
||||||
| Pl.Nom. | katll | fœtr | bœkr | vótnn |
|
| Plur. Nom. | katll | fœtr | bœkr | vótnn |
|
||||||
| Acc. | katl | fœt | bœkr | vótn |
|
| Acc. | katl | fœt | bœkr | vótn |
|
||||||
| Dat. | katlum | fótum | bókum | vótnum |
|
| Dat. | katlum | fótum | bókum | vótnum |
|
||||||
| Gen. | katl | fœt | bœk | vótn |
|
| Gen. | katl | fœt | bœk | vótn |
|
||||||
@ -1303,16 +1151,15 @@ case marking itself. The full declension table of definite articles
|
|||||||
can be found in the table below. As we can see, the definite articles
|
can be found in the table below. As we can see, the definite articles
|
||||||
underwent an important regularization as well as merging strong neuter
|
underwent an important regularization as well as merging strong neuter
|
||||||
and weak nouns together.
|
and weak nouns together.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
#+name: tbl:definite-articles
|
#+name: tbl:definite-articles
|
||||||
| / | <r> | | |
|
| / | <r> | | |
|
||||||
| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter and Weak Nouns |
|
| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter and Weak Nouns |
|
||||||
|---+---------+---------------+------------------------------|
|
|---+------------+---------------+------------------------------|
|
||||||
| | Sg.Nom. | -(i)nn | -(i)t |
|
| | Sing. Nom. | -(i)nn | -(i)t |
|
||||||
| | Acc. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
| | Acc. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
||||||
| | Dat. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
| | Dat. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
||||||
| | Gen. | -(i)ns | -(i)ts |
|
| | Gen. | -(i)ns | -(i)ts |
|
||||||
| | Pl.Nom. | -(i)nn | -(i)tr |
|
| | Plur. Nom. | -(i)nn | -(i)tr |
|
||||||
| | Acc. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
| | Acc. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
||||||
| | Dat. | -(i)num | -(i)tum |
|
| | Dat. | -(i)num | -(i)tum |
|
||||||
| | Gen. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
| | Gen. | -(i)n | -(i)t |
|
||||||
|
|||||||
@ -560,28 +560,7 @@ formal speech.
|
|||||||
Eittlandic {{{phon(ɑɪnləɡr)}}}
|
Eittlandic {{{phon(ɑɪnləɡr)}}}
|
||||||
#+html: :::
|
#+html: :::
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
**** {{{phon(ɔ)}}} and {{{phon(ɑ)}}} merger
|
|
||||||
Western Eittlandic is currently going a phonological merge of the
|
|
||||||
vowels {{{phon(ɔ)}}} and {{{phon(ɑ)}}} into {{{phon(ɒ)}}}. The vowel {{{phon(ɔ̀)}}} also
|
|
||||||
follows this pattern, morphing into {{{phon(ɒ̀)}}}.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
**** Great Vowel Shift variation
|
|
||||||
While the Great Vowel Shift is happened relatively uniformly in
|
|
||||||
Eittland, some regions did not follow the same pattern as what
|
|
||||||
happened everywhere else.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
The main example is the area around Đeberget where the vowel {{{phon(ɑː)}}}
|
|
||||||
evolved not as {{{phon(ɛ̀)}}} but as {{{phon(ɔ̀)}}}.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
*** Eastern Eittlandic
|
*** Eastern Eittlandic
|
||||||
**** {{{phon(y)}}} and {{{phon(u)}}} merger
|
|
||||||
In areas around Vestrheim especially, locals tend to merge {{{phon(y)}}}
|
|
||||||
into {{{phon(u)}}}.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
**** Centralisation of {{{phon(i)}}}
|
|
||||||
In the northern rural parts of Eastern Eittland, populations tend to
|
|
||||||
centralise {{{phon(i)}}} into {{{phon(ɨ)}}}.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
**** Great Vowel Shift variation
|
**** Great Vowel Shift variation
|
||||||
When the [[file:./phonology.md#great-vowel-shift][Great Vowel Shift]] happened, not all regions were affected the
|
When the [[file:./phonology.md#great-vowel-shift][Great Vowel Shift]] happened, not all regions were affected the
|
||||||
same. As such, we can find in some rural parts of the Eastern
|
same. As such, we can find in some rural parts of the Eastern
|
||||||
|
|||||||
Loading…
Reference in New Issue
Block a user