This commit is contained in:
+95
-53
@@ -54,9 +54,9 @@ Here we also have few changes from the Early Old Norse pronouns for
|
||||
the third persons, singular and plural.
|
||||
|
||||
An additional set of pronouns contains reflexive pronouns. This one is
|
||||
relatively small, as it does not agree in person, number, or
|
||||
gender.However, it still agrees in case. Note that there is no
|
||||
nominative reflexive pronoun in Eittlandic.
|
||||
relatively small, as it does not agree in person, number, or gender.
|
||||
However, it still agrees in case. Note that there is no nominative
|
||||
reflexive pronoun in Eittlandic.
|
||||
| Nominative | - |
|
||||
| Accusative | sik |
|
||||
| Dative | sér |
|
||||
@@ -82,9 +82,9 @@ Eittlandic and Old Norse, in favour of the sets containing /hinn/ and
|
||||
|
||||
It is interesting to see that this set of pronouns retained some
|
||||
differences between their masculine and feminine form, which has
|
||||
become quite rare in Modern Eittlandic. These are used in a similar
|
||||
way as “that” or “those” in English, designating elements or things
|
||||
that are judged as distant by the speaker from themselves.
|
||||
become quite rare in Modern Eittlandic. These are used similarly to
|
||||
“that” or “those” in English, designating elements or things that are
|
||||
judged as distant by the speaker from themselves.
|
||||
|
||||
On the other hand, the following pronouns containing /þess/ relate to
|
||||
the words “this” and “these” in English.
|
||||
@@ -93,25 +93,38 @@ the words “this” and “these” in English.
|
||||
Possessive pronouns in Eittlandic simply are the genitive form of the
|
||||
personal pronouns shown [[file:./grammar.md#personal-pronouns][above]]. The pronoun agrees with the owner in
|
||||
person and number, and in gender when the third person is used, as in
|
||||
English. They have two different usage.
|
||||
English.
|
||||
|
||||
The first and more formal usage, inherited from Old Norse, is to
|
||||
precede the noun phrase owned by the owner with the genitive pronoun.
|
||||
For instance, /mín katt/ means /my cat/ while /þeim katt/ means /their cat/
|
||||
(as shown in [[file:./grammar.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], we have no way to know if /katt/, a strong
|
||||
common word, is singular or plural accusative).
|
||||
They generally replace a whole nominative proposition, such as with
|
||||
the example below.
|
||||
|
||||
The second and more casual way to express possession is using the
|
||||
definite form of a word and placing the possessive pronoun after it.
|
||||
We can adapt the previous examples of /my cat/ and /their cat/ as /kattin
|
||||
mín/ and /kattin þeim/.
|
||||
#+html: ::: tip Example
|
||||
– Havir þú historiabøk?
|
||||
– Ek haft gleymt mín
|
||||
#+html: :::
|
||||
|
||||
While these two forms provide a difference in tone, the second form is
|
||||
more limited as it only allows single word noun phrases to be the
|
||||
possessed element while the first allows more complex noun phrases.
|
||||
The sentence /mín kattrinn komand frá heim/ (/my cat coming from home/)
|
||||
would need to be modified in order to fit the second structure, such
|
||||
as /kattrinn mín, hvar komr frá heim/ (/my cat, who is coming from home/).
|
||||
You can compare them to English possessive pronouns like /mine/, /yours/,
|
||||
or /theirs/.
|
||||
|
||||
# That’s possessive adjectives, move it in the right header
|
||||
|
||||
# The first and more formal usage, inherited from Old Norse, is to
|
||||
# precede the noun phrase owned by the owner with the genitive pronoun.
|
||||
# For instance, /mín katt/ means /my cat/ while /þeim katt/ means /their cat/
|
||||
# (as shown in [[file:./grammar.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], we have no way to know if /katt/, a strong
|
||||
# common word, is singular or plural accusative).
|
||||
|
||||
# The second and more casual way to express possession is using the
|
||||
# definite form of a word and placing the possessive pronoun after it.
|
||||
# We can adapt the previous examples of /my cat/ and /their cat/ as /kattin
|
||||
# mín/ and /kattin þeim/.
|
||||
|
||||
# While these two forms provide a difference in tone, the second form is
|
||||
# more limited as it only allows single word noun phrases to be the
|
||||
# possessed element while the first allows more complex noun phrases.
|
||||
# The sentence /mín kattrinn komand frá heim/ (/my cat coming from home/)
|
||||
# would need to be modified in order to fit the second structure, such
|
||||
# as /kattrinn mín, hvar komr frá heim/ (/my cat, who is coming from home/).
|
||||
|
||||
*** Verbs
|
||||
# - What are the distributional properties of verbs?
|
||||
@@ -247,26 +260,27 @@ remaining difference between strong and weak verbs.
|
||||
| 1s | | ferumk | berjumk |
|
||||
| 2s | | ferisk | berjaðisk |
|
||||
| 3s | | ferisk | berjaðisk |
|
||||
| 1p | | farask | berjaðisk |
|
||||
| 1p | | farumk | berjumk |
|
||||
| 2p | | farask | berjaðisk |
|
||||
| 3p | | farask | berjaðisk |
|
||||
|
||||
There is only one minor difference for the subjunctive mood: both the
|
||||
first person singular and plural change to /-imk/ instead of /-umk/.
|
||||
first-person singular and plural change to /-imk/ instead of /-umk/.
|
||||
Imperative, on the other hand, only works with the second person in
|
||||
the present tense by appending an /-sk/ at the end of the infinitive of
|
||||
the verb.
|
||||
|
||||
Due to this uniformisation of the passive voice in Eittlandic,
|
||||
Eittlanders began using the verbs /ver(a)/ and /hav(a)/ (respectively /to
|
||||
be/ and /to have/) as auxilliaries preceeding the verb in order to convey
|
||||
be/ and /to have/) as auxiliaries preceding the verb in order to convey
|
||||
the subject, tense, and mood agreement. The verb /ver(a)/ is most often
|
||||
used in active verbs, while the verb /hav(a)/ is generally used with
|
||||
stative verbs. While all verbs have a default auxilliary, such as
|
||||
stative verbs. While all verbs have a default auxiliary, such as
|
||||
/ver(a)/ for a verb like /et(a)/ (/to eat/), the speaker may choose to use
|
||||
the other auxilliary in order to increase or decrease the agency of
|
||||
the semantic agent (not the syntactic agent), even if it is not
|
||||
present in the sentence.
|
||||
the other auxiliary in order to increase or decrease the agency of the
|
||||
semantic agent (not the syntactic agent), even if it is not present in
|
||||
the sentence.
|
||||
|
||||
#+html: ::: tip Example
|
||||
- Ek var brennumk mik
|
||||
| ek | var | brenn-umk | mik |
|
||||
@@ -300,7 +314,7 @@ completely removing it from the sentence.
|
||||
|
||||
*** Modifiers :noexport:
|
||||
# - If you posit a morphosyntactic category of adjectives, give
|
||||
# evidence for not grouping theseforms with the verbs or nouns. What
|
||||
# evidence for not grouping these forms with the verbs or nouns. What
|
||||
# characterizes a form as being an adjective in this language?
|
||||
# - How can you characterize semantically the class of concepts coded
|
||||
# by this formal category?
|
||||
@@ -313,7 +327,10 @@ completely removing it from the sentence.
|
||||
# - Do numerals agree with their head nouns (number, case, noun
|
||||
# class, ...)?
|
||||
**** Descriptive Adjectives :noexport:
|
||||
**** Non-Numeral Quantifiers :noexport:
|
||||
Similarly to verbs, adjectives in Eittlandic underwent
|
||||
|
||||
**** Possessive Adjectives
|
||||
**** Non-Numeral Quantifiers :noexport:
|
||||
**** Numerals :noexport:
|
||||
|
||||
*** Adverbs :noexport:
|
||||
@@ -436,7 +453,7 @@ syntactic dative of the verb.
|
||||
**** Yes/No questions
|
||||
Yes/no questions are generally answered by /já/ or /nei/ (/yes/ or /no/
|
||||
respectively), sometimes with a repeat of the core of the sentence to
|
||||
confirm the anwser.
|
||||
confirm the reply.
|
||||
|
||||
#+html: ::: tip Example
|
||||
- Komr han í dag með faðin hans?
|
||||
@@ -505,7 +522,7 @@ on its erroneous nature.
|
||||
|
||||
Some yes/no questions are sometimes asked in a very reduced form,
|
||||
without a full verbal sentence and only consisting of a noun phrase.
|
||||
Think of questions like /Coffe?/ or /Another cookie?/ in English. Such
|
||||
Think of questions like /Coffee?/ or /Another cookie?/ in English. Such
|
||||
questions in Eittlandic require the final word /vit/.
|
||||
|
||||
#+html: ::: tip Example
|
||||
@@ -614,26 +631,51 @@ neuter and weak nouns. The declension system completely merged weak
|
||||
nouns which are no longer distinguished by gender. Strong masculine
|
||||
and strong feminine also got merged into strong common.
|
||||
|
||||
Declensions are no longer productive in almost all Modern Eittlandic
|
||||
dialects. They are still mostly used in formal and written speech, but
|
||||
they are less and less used in less formal circumstances and in oral
|
||||
speech. The Royal Academy for Literature, which authored Standard
|
||||
Eittlandic, even recommends not using grammatical cases when using
|
||||
this dialect as they are reduntand with other syntactic strategies.
|
||||
While the recommendation is mostly followed, speakers still tend to
|
||||
use the singular genetive declension oraly. Younger folks at the time
|
||||
of writing even tend to regularize it as /-ar/ for strong neuter and
|
||||
weak nouns.
|
||||
We end up with the following declension system in Eittlandic.
|
||||
|
||||
#+name: tbl:eittlandic-noun-inflexion
|
||||
#+caption: Eittlandic noun inflexion
|
||||
| / | <r> | | | |
|
||||
| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter | Weak Nouns |
|
||||
|---+------------+---------------+---------------+------------|
|
||||
| | Sing. Nom. | -r | | |
|
||||
| | Acc. | | | |
|
||||
| | Dat. | | | |
|
||||
| | Gen. | -(a)r | -s | -s |
|
||||
| | Plur. Nom. | -r | | -r |
|
||||
| | Acc. | | | |
|
||||
| | Dat. | -um | -um | -um |
|
||||
| | Gen. | -(a)r | -s | -s |
|
||||
|
||||
The /-ar/ ending drops the /a/ when an underlying ending vowel is present
|
||||
in a word, as with /dótt/ (daughter) becoming /dóttir/ in its genitive
|
||||
form. In some regions of Eittland, such as in the area of Vátrsteinn,
|
||||
a strong neuter / weak noun merger is in effect, where strong neuter
|
||||
merged into weak nouns. In the area of Hvítvall in North Western
|
||||
Eastern Eittland, a complete merger between the three types of nouns
|
||||
happened around the 1850s, where everything is declined as a weak
|
||||
noun.
|
||||
|
||||
Nethertheless, declensions are no longer productive in most Modern
|
||||
Eittlandic dialects. They are still mostly used in formal and written
|
||||
speech, but they are less and less frequently used in less formal
|
||||
circumstances and in oral speech. The Royal Academy for Literature,
|
||||
which authored the Standard Eittlandic, even recommends not using
|
||||
grammatical cases when using this dialect as they are seen as
|
||||
reduntand with other syntactic strategies. While the recommendation is
|
||||
mostly followed, speakers still tend to use the singular genetive
|
||||
declension oraly. Younger folks at the time of writing even tend to
|
||||
regularize it as /-ar/ for strong neuter and weak nouns.
|
||||
|
||||
One exception to declensions no longer being productive is in and
|
||||
around the Hylfjaltr Kingdom exclave in southern Eittland where
|
||||
speakers of its local dialect tend instead to favor strong nouns for
|
||||
speakers of its local dialect tend instead to favour strong nouns for
|
||||
newer terms. Hence, while most dialects agree on “internet” (pl.nom
|
||||
/internetr/, pl.dat /internetum/) being a weak noun, this dialect treats
|
||||
it as either a strong feminine (sg.gen /internetar/, pl.nom&acc
|
||||
/internetr/, pl.dat /internetum/) or a strong neuter (sg.gen /internets/,
|
||||
pl.dat /internetum/) --- the difference is due to subdivisions in said
|
||||
dialect, mainly between rural and urban areas favoring the former and
|
||||
dialect, mainly between rural and urban areas favouring the former and
|
||||
the latter respectively.
|
||||
|
||||
There are some regular exceptions to the declension system. The first
|
||||
@@ -703,7 +745,7 @@ numerals have declensions as discussed in [[file:word-structure-and-classes.md#n
|
||||
| Gen. | ein | einn | eits |
|
||||
|
||||
**** Definite articles
|
||||
As in other scandinavian languages, definite articles in Eittlandic
|
||||
As in other Scandinavian languages, definite articles in Eittlandic
|
||||
act as suffixes to the noun and fully replace its declension as it has
|
||||
case marking itself. The full declension table of definite articles
|
||||
can be found in the table below. As we can see, the definite articles
|
||||
@@ -772,12 +814,12 @@ Modern Eittlandic nouns and adjectives.
|
||||
Due to the presence of declensions with strong nouns and adjectives,
|
||||
its pronouns, and to a certain degree different articles, it can still
|
||||
be said Eittlandic is a gendered language, although it doesn’t hold
|
||||
much importance in its grammar anymore. Since strong nouns aren’t
|
||||
productive anymore and weak nouns lost all obvious gender differences,
|
||||
we can even consider gender as not productive anymore in Eittlandic
|
||||
and bound to eventually disappear. In fact, the loss of gender is even
|
||||
stronger in Standard Eittlandic due to the theoretical absence of
|
||||
declensions in this dialect.
|
||||
much importance in its grammar any more. Since strong nouns aren’t
|
||||
productive any more and weak nouns lost all obvious gender
|
||||
differences, we can even consider gender as not productive any more in
|
||||
Eittlandic and bound to eventually disappear. In fact, the loss of
|
||||
gender is even stronger in Standard Eittlandic due to the theoretical
|
||||
absence of declensions in this dialect.
|
||||
|
||||
In case a strong noun is used with a strong adjective, both will agree
|
||||
in number and gender.
|
||||
@@ -815,7 +857,7 @@ in number and gender.
|
||||
# - How are predicate adjective formed? (Include a separate section on
|
||||
# predicate adjectives only if they are structurally distinct from
|
||||
# predicate nominals.)
|
||||
*** Locative Predicat
|
||||
*** Locative Predicates
|
||||
# - How are locational clauses (or predicate locatives) formed?
|
||||
*** Existential Predicates
|
||||
# - How are existential clauses formed? (Give examples in different
|
||||
|
||||
Reference in New Issue
Block a user