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* Propos préliminaires
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-41a62215-44fc-490f-89f3-5b9cccf02550
:END:
** Avant-propos
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-89e5cd8b-42e4-41c2-aad7-6112dfa3ace1
:END:
La redistribution ou vente de ce document sont strictement interdits. Ce
document est protégé par la loi française sur le droit d’auteur et appartient
entièrement et totalement à son auteur. Ce document est un document
disponible gratuitement au format web et pdf sur mon site web[fn:1]. Si vous
l’avez obtenu depuis une autre source, gratuitement ou non, merci de m’en
faire part en me contactant via mes réseaux sociaux ou par mail que vous
trouverez sur mon site principal[fn:2]. Aucune personne, morale ou physique,
n’est à l’heure actuelle autorisée à redistribuer ces documents. Si vous êtes
intéressés par une redistribution de ce document, je vous invite à rentrer en
contact avec moi afin que l’on en discute.
Ce document traite d’une langue imaginaire que j’ai créé. Cependant, il sera
rédigé comme s’il s’agissait de la première tentative de description de la
langue par un linguiste la découvrant. Ainsi, si dans certains passages vous
pouvez lire « mais plus d’études sur le sujet sont nécessaires » ou « cet
aspect de la langue n’a pas encore été sujet à des analyses plus
approfondies », comprenez par cela que je n’ai pas encore travaillé sur ou
fini cette partie qui peut être sujet à des mises à jours dans le futur.
** Remerciements
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-55c5bdb0-8ad9-4be0-8527-925b166474eb
:END:
** Introduction
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-0c5f0aa6-d69d-4fd5-8f61-df9a409af18f
:END:
** Liste des abbréviations
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-58d63d52-aebc-4b33-841e-b7a561d0f7c4
:END:
* Contexte culturel, écologique et sociolinguiste de la langue
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-a89fab50-74c0-4d03-9248-8cad4629d846
:END:
** Le nom de la langue
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-2a5d6c2e-16e0-48c1-9cb5-d2ff98519b3f
:END:
# - What is the language known as to outsiders?
# - What term do the people use to distinguish themselves from other language
# groups?
# - What is the origin of these terms (if known)?
** Éthnologie
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-c3298027-baf7-4f86-a5e9-136eb4c28a57
:END:
# - What is the dominant economic activity of the people?
# - Briefly describe the ecosystem, material culture, and cosmology (they will
# be intimately related)
** Démographie
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-4792d22e-b371-46f1-ab60-521d30a7a535
:END:
# - Where is the language spoken, and how are the people distributed in this
# area?
# - Are there other language groups inhabiting the same area?
# - What is the nature of the interaction with these language groups? Economic?
# Social? Friendly? Belligerent?
# - In social/economic interactions with other groups, which groups are
# dominant and which are marginalized? How so?
*** Cartes
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-7914837c-3bf9-4edf-828e-6a36f38527e4
:END:
*** Histoire, migrations
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-f20f59bf-abf0-4732-acd3-4cb773e10b38
:END:
** Écologie
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-1cff65b5-a389-4f68-9feb-7aaf4d6c50ee
:END:
** Affiliations génétiques
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-ae7ce582-2f58-41e2-99b9-129cbd4eedd3
:END:
# - What language family does this language belong to?
# - What are its closest relatives?
** Situation sociolinguistique
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-bada4703-90a1-4dcd-ab29-203101ce00e4
:END:
*** Multilinguisme et attitude envers les langues
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-621e6556-a3ca-4fb4-9c90-7d0cb372ffa2
:END:
# - What percentage of the people are monolingual? (Treat men and women
# separately.)
# - What language(s) are people multilingual in, and to what degree?
# - As far as you can tell, what is the attitude of the speakers of this
# language toward their language, as opposed to other languages they may
# know? If possible, give evidence for your claims even though it may be
# anecdotal.
*** Contexte d’utilisation et choix de langues
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-9d8fead2-7af6-46c4-92f6-004d39534331
:END:
# - In what contexts are multilingual individuals likely to use the language
# described in this sketch? When do they use other languages?
*** Viabilité
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-6c827715-39ca-497a-b7a1-c365df1b5585
:END:
# - Are children learning the language as their first language? If so, how
# long do they remain monolingual?
# - What pressures are there on young people to (a) learn another language,
# and (b) reject their own language? How strong are these pressures?
# - Are there partially competent speakers?
*** Mots d’emprun
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-8b4127a5-6b06-48c7-82f5-b504b6731fb4
:END:
# - Does the lexicon of this language contain many words from other languages?
# If so, in what semantic domains do these tend to occur? Give examples.
** Dialectes
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-13fc6beb-4c24-4b82-b50f-a2f5da5247fb
:END:
# - Is there significant dialect variation? What kind of differences
# distinguish the dialects? Give examples.
# - What dialect is represented in the sketch?
** Tradition littéraire
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-65a1be15-7777-451f-b876-b52f9a91cbd0
:END:
* Aperçu structurel
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-76fc0b91-e41c-42ad-8652-bba029632333
:END:
** Esquisse typologique
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-dcd950c6-3a8b-4a9b-abf5-11f607d37415
:END:
# - Is the language dominantly isolating or polysynthetic?
# - If the language is at all polysynthetic, is it dominantly agglutinative or
# fusional? Give examples of its dominant pattern and any secondary patterns.
# - If the language is at all agglutinative, is it dominantly prefixing,
# suffixing or neither?
# - Illustrate the major and secondary patterns (including infixation, stem
# modification, reduplication, suprasegmental modification, and suppletion).
# - If the language is at all polysynthetic, is it dominantly "head-marking",
# "dependent-marking", or mixed?
# - Give some examples of each type of marking the language exhibits.
** Inventaire phonétique et orthographe
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-ed0cea88-9b4f-42e9-ac94-b40c8432e264
:END:
*** Voyelles
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-8a426b75-a928-4eb6-94a4-6532dd9d91e5
:END:
*** Consonnes
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-aa2ea546-2078-4239-8b49-f8f28b886547
:END:
*** Ton et accentuation
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-c83deaf0-9767-4ac8-a109-7a677b5fba9d
:END:
** Phonotaxes
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-f0eaf02f-25f5-4b27-988a-ae7b3f99089c
:END:
*** Structure syllabique
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-950b4805-8981-4f61-b1d8-4f0ce29ba57e
:END:
*** Allophonie
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-fe7264d9-845a-4f20-a6a3-f1863be8a4ff
:END:
** Structure d’un mot
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-6cef78f6-5870-4583-aaf4-4544ba91417e
:END:
** Processus phonologiques et morphophonémiques principaux
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-e70736d9-53cd-402d-a04e-81d5a3462215
:END:
** Prononciation de discours relaché et contractions
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-b35a0eb7-61b8-4fe7-a653-d9790452b15d
:END:
** Classes de mots
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-115008d7-60bd-43a9-af09-7e3fa69bbeac
:END:
*** Noms
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-dcef02ce-f4dd-454d-be8e-e362c92cc147
:END:
# - What are the distributional properties of nouns?
# - What are the structural properties of nouns?
# - What are the major formally distinct subcategories of nouns?
# - What is the basic structure of the noun word (for polysynthetic languages)
# and/or noun phrases (for more isolating languages)?
**** Structure d’un nom
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-3f99ead1-df52-4b27-afce-9fe901a62c3a
:END:
**** Processus dérivationels
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-def0ffb2-08fb-4221-ab8e-86d9f0f2ae2e
:END:
**** Processus inflexionels
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-33255f99-6091-44ee-ac85-d93d6d1cc421
:END:
**** Noms dénombrables et indénombrables
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-43bcf531-a72f-49e9-a0b4-2a0bea3c7dd9
:END:
**** Noms propres
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-81ec1093-7601-4abf-bfe6-c13daee3bbf1
:END:
*** Pronoms et/ou clitiques anaphoriques
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-edf935a6-971a-4fc1-974a-611784acb77a
:END:
# - Does the language have free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics? (These are
# distinct from grammatical agreement.)
# - Give a chart of the free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics.
**** Pronoms personnels
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-e9bbacb5-e3ef-4c66-a052-869ca7bcc0f3
:END:
**** Pronoms démonstratifs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-cb71bffc-c469-4b7b-aeb9-8a5d8d19ffe6
:END:
**** Autres
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-d7a73687-d694-4174-8d4c-48d6851f0c61
:END:
*** Verbes
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-de4bb93d-bcd1-4edf-8314-497bf3c06ab8
:END:
# - What are the distributional properties of verbs?
# - What are the structural properties of verbs?
# - What are the major subclasses of verbs?
# - Describe the order of various verbal operators within the verbal word or
# verb phrase.
# - Give charts of the various paradigms, e.g. person marking,
# tense/aspect/mode, etc. Indicate major allomorphic variants.
# - Are directional and/or locational notions expressed in the verb or verb
# phrase at all?
# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the paradigm have
# to occur in every finite verb or verb phrase?
# - Is it productive, i.e. can the operation be specified for al verb stems,
# and does it have the same meaning with each one? (Nothing is fully
# productive, but some operations are more productive than others.)
# - Is this operation primarily coded morphologically, analytically, or
# lexically? Are there any exceptions to the general case?
# - Where in the verb phrase or verbal word is this operation likely to
# appear? Can it occur in more than one place?
**** Structure verbale
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-19b1c9d4-eb87-41db-bb3f-483be321af86
:END:
**** Processus dérivationel
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-9ae57ccb-d971-4637-93cd-73e80f5e78f0
:END:
**** Processus inflectionel
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-e6af0628-8232-4887-9b87-3e60fb6aeb55
:END:
**** Classe de verbes distincte 1
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-d7d4df8b-f4c6-4578-8c19-e4778705b54f
:END:
**** Classe de verbes distincte 2
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-c4199547-940d-4c69-868f-aa8cc38ed26c
:END:
**** Classe de verbes distincte 3
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-95980b56-b9f0-40df-9a05-8af14629d425
:END:
**** Classe de verbes distincte 4
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-53c983a5-445e-445c-81c3-56d6ab360de1
:END:
*** Modificateurs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-fa582b13-c83c-4219-9274-fd6c81f83f5b
:END:
# - If you posit a morphosyntacticc category of adjectives, give evidence for
# not grouping theseforms with the verbs or nouns.
# What characterizes a form as being an adjective in this language?
# - How can you characterize semantically the class of concepts coded by this
# formal category?
# - Do adjectives agree with their heads (e.g. in number, case, and/or noun
# class)?
# - What kind of system does the language employ for counting?
# - How high can a fluent native speaker count without resorting either to
# words from another language or to a generic word like /many/? Exemplify
# the system up to this point.
# - Do numerals agree with their head nouns (number, case, noun class, ...)?
**** Adjectifs descriptifs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-231cd0ef-17a7-4cc9-b97f-a198dd3c2779
:END:
**** Quantifieurs non-numéraux
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-5c3776c1-36a9-4cd3-820b-6003181043bf
:END:
**** Numéraux
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-264415c7-bef0-40c0-a6e0-939949bac6a6
:END:
*** Adverbes
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-ac1f5889-ab88-4b8c-903a-abc0dbc243c9
:END:
# - What characterikes a form as being an adverb in this language? If you
# posit a distinct class of adverbs, argue for why these forms should not be
# treated as nouns, verbs, or adjectives.
# - For each kind of adverb listed in this section, list a few members of the
# type, and specify whether there are any restrictions relavite to that
# type, e.g. where they can come in a clause, any morphemes common to the
# type, etc.
# - Are any of these classes of adverbs related to older complement-taking
# (matrix) verbs?
*** Auxilliaires
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-5be5e2a8-7d51-4875-ab30-8c44702f1566
:END:
*** Adpositions (prépositions ou postpositions)
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-df92af32-3852-4bf3-8d0d-83467c50f29c
:END:
*** Particules ou autres classes de mots mineures
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-f33bbce5-2fb6-47ae-9aff-03635d06cc2a
:END:
** Typologie de l’ordre des constituants
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-ee279d43-b0aa-488e-9467-2b1956468d48
:END:
*** Ordre des constituants dans les clauses principales
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-7945a001-d98a-42fe-845f-7f37c2f14f1d
:END:
# - What is the neutral order of free elements in the unit?
# - Are there variations?
# - How do the variant orders function?
# - Specific to the main clause constituent order: What is the pragmatically
# neutral order of constituents (A/S, P, and V) in basic clauses of the
# language?
*** Ordre des constituants dans les clauses verbales
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-e68d1726-9baf-4963-b098-58c6aa340082
:END:
# - Where do auxliaries occur in relation to the semantically “main” verb?
# - Where do verb-phrase adverbs occur with respect to the verb and
# auxiliaries?
*** Ordre des constituants dans les clauses nominales
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-130f774a-bc58-46ca-a172-c413c8236366
:END:
# - Describe the order(s) of elements in the noun phrase.
*** Phrases adpositionelles
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-4890aba1-72e2-43e7-98a6-6185cbc6f246
:END:
# - Is the language dominantly prepositional or post-positional? Give examples.
# - Do many adpositions come from nouns or verbs?
*** Comparatifs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-987612fa-84ce-4d28-a8e2-363002edb722
:END:
# - Does the language have one or more grammaticalized comparative
# constructions? If so, what is the order of the standard, the marker and
# the quality by which an item is compared to the standard?
*** Particules de questions et mots interrogatifs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-66436f0c-f1b6-4c2b-8c35-6b9439d81e86
:END:
# - In yes/no questions, if there is a question particle, where does it occur?
# - In information questions, where does the question word occur?
*** Résumé
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-86a5e054-9618-485f-8cc8-93704a890a30
:END:
# - How does this language compare in its constituent orders to universal
# expectations, as represented by Greenberg (1963), Hawkins (1983), or some
# other well-known typology?
** Structure d’une phrase nominale
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-3f1cc9cc-1a9d-48e2-94ee-0e7c2aaebe13
:END:
*** Mots composés
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-d697b050-c292-4852-932f-bcd74ba2061f
:END:
# - Is there noun-noun compounding that results in a noun (e.g. /windshield/)?
# - How do you know it is compounding?
# - Is there noun-verb (or verb-noun) compounding that results in a noun (e.g.
# /pickpocket/, /scarecrow/)?
# - Are these processes productive (like noun-verb in English can-opener)? How
# common is compounding?
*** Dénominalisation
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-6abaae53-a2b8-4cc1-aa03-10c8b4a45b0a
:END:
# - Are there any processes (productive or not) that form a verb from a noun?
# - An adjective from a noun?
# - An adverb from a noun?
*** Nombres
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-4a7398f7-c2a0-4969-a6a2-ca004b4cbddd
:END:
# - Is number expressed in the noun phrase?
# - Is the distinction between singular and non-singular obligatory, optional,
# or completely absent in the noun phrase?
# - If number marking is “optional”, when does it tend to occur, and when does
# it tend not to occur?
# - If number marking is obligatory, is number overtly expressed for all noun
# phrases or only some subclasses of noun phrases, such as animate?
# - What non-singular distinctions are there?
*** Case
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-7cf3e6ae-6d62-4f39-a4e1-0c697b380675
:END:
# - Do nouns exhibit morphological case?
# - If so, what are the cases? (The functions of the cases will be elaborated
# in later sections)
*** Articles, déterminants et démonstratifs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-2c2cb606-7ad8-4d8d-a0aa-729b005a7132
:END:
# - Do noun phrases have articles?
# - If so, are they obligatory or optional, and under what circumstances do
# they occur?
# - Are they separate words, or bound morphemes?
# - Is there a class of classes of demonstratives as distinct from articles?
# - How many degrees of distance are there in the system of demontsratives?
# - Are there other distinctions beside distances?
*** Possesseurs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-fe62e78c-2b6a-47be-876d-0c188d0ee27d
:END:
# - How are possessors expressed in the noun phrase?
# - Do nouns agree with their possessors? Do possessors agree with possessed
# nouns? Neither, or both?
# - Is there a distinction between alienable and inalienable possesson?
# - Are there other types of possession?
# - When the possessor is a full noun, where does it usually come with respect
# to the possessed noun?
*** Classes (incluant le genre)
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-8f76c669-2e2c-45a0-aaf8-8b56ae6c771d
:END:
# - Is there a noun class system?
# - What are the classes and how are they manifested in the noun phrase?
# - What dimension of reality is most central to the noun class system (e.g.
# animacy, shape, function, etc.)? What other dimensions are relevant?
# - Do the classifiers occur with numerals? Adjectives? Verbs?
# - What is their function in these contexts?
*** Diminution/Augmentation
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-8695b587-b33e-42b5-b374-16a068d335ef
:END:
# - Does the language employ diminutive and/or augmentative operators in the
# noun or noun phrase?
# - Questions to answer for all nominal operations:
# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the paradigm have
# to occur in every full noun phrase?
# - Is it productive, i.e. can the operation be specified for all full noun
# phrases and does it have the same meaning with each one? (Nothing is
# fully productive, but some operations are more so than others.)
# - Is this operation primarily expressed lexically, morphologically, or
# analytically?
# - Where in the noun phrase is this operation likely to be located? Can it
# occur in more than one place?
** Prédicats nominaux et constructions liées
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-241f8093-3388-42fe-8060-af94a2ff03a4
:END:
*** Prédicats nominaux
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-28fe553c-2fc1-4c1d-ad81-23680b62918a
:END:
# - How are proper inclusion and equative predicates formed?
# - What restrictions are there, if any, on the TAM marking of such clauses?
*** Prédicats adjectivaux
:PROPERTIES:
:SUBTITLE: Clauses attributives
:CUSTOM_ID: h-5a0c7fd1-9008-4915-88ef-6b2482795e44
:END:
# - How are predicate adjective formed? (Include a separate section on
# predicate adjectives only if they are structurally distinct from predicate
# nominals.)
*** Prédicats locatifs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-ea755499-8c28-4ddb-a037-841658aeeb91
:END:
# - How are locational clauses (or predicate locatives) formed?
*** Prédicats existentiels
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-93c2c2bb-bb4d-46bd-9979-5a8392c2f144
:END:
# - How are existential clauses formed? (Give examples in different
# tense/aspects, especially if there is significant variation.)
# - How are negative existentials formed?
# - Are there extended uses of existential morphology? (Provide pointers to
# other relevant sections of the grammar.)
*** Clauses possessives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-d68829a8-b329-46f7-88d8-ece6845e08e3
:END:
# - How are possessive clauses formed?
** Structure d’une phrase verbale
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-fbbefe2b-595f-405d-bc5e-b1fa0cd13749
:END:
** Clauses intransitives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-ea08f661-5634-4b92-bb53-026171de4426
:END:
** Clauses transitives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-1167b478-c009-4f35-a02f-3cfde57e72e9
:END:
** Clauses ditransitives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-7a1c9080-3e3e-4b26-82c2-80f524380d67
:END:
** Types de clauses dépendantes
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-569b95dd-01df-4010-8fd1-51fc0499381c
:END:
*** Non-finies
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-4a915574-e407-4182-b70c-8247c160d963
:END:
*** Semi-finies
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-377bfd10-ab3c-4fa1-9b7e-b3d5ec7491de
:END:
*** Finies
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-de685cbe-46a7-4ee9-a226-64767781fb37
:END:
* Système fonctionnel
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-b98946f1-8554-4243-ab3e-bf098b1b04ef
:END:
** Relations grammaticales
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-da598991-b75c-4031-a6af-0f06880eb971
:END:
# Examplify some simple intransitive, transitive, and ditransitive clauses.
# Three-argument clauses may not unequivocally exist.
# - What are the grammatical erlations of this language? Give morphosyntactic
# evidence for each one that you propose.
# - Subject?
# - Ergative?
# - Absolutive?
# - Direct object?
# - Indirect object?
# There are basically four possible sources of evidence for grammatical
# relations:
# - morphological case on NPs
# - person marking on verbs
# - constituent order
# - some pragmatic hierarchy
# - Is the system of grammatical relations in basic (affirmative, declarative)
# clauses organized according to a nominative/accusative,
# ergative/absolutive, tripartite, or some other system?
# - Is there a split system for organizing grammatical relations? If so, what
# determines the split?
# - Is there split instransitivity? If so, what semantic or
# discourse/pragmatic factor conditions the split?
# - DOes the system for pronouns and/or person marking on verbs operate on
# the same basis as that of full NPs?
# - Are there different grammatical-relation systems depending on the clause
# type (e.g. main vs. dependent clauses, affirmative vs. negative clauses)?
# - Are there different grammatical-relation assignment systems depending on
# the tense and/or aspect of the clause?
# - Are there any syntactic processes (e.g. conjunction reduction,
# relativization) that operate on an ergative/absolutive basis?
** Constructions liées à la voix et à la valence
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-f6447004-ff87-46d0-afc2-08e1cf1dfc64
:END:
*** Augmentation de valence
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-abfdbac1-d00a-48e3-bf03-9e01330d6f5e
:END:
**** Causatif
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-b1dac30b-3ca7-4a71-a313-34cdab5e234e
:END:
# - How are causatives formed in this language? There are basically three
# possible answers to this question:
# - lexicall :: kill
# - morphological :: die + cause
# - analytic/periphrastic :: cause to die
# - Give examples of both causative of instransitive verbs (e.g. /He made Shin
# Jaa laugh/), and of transivite verbs (e.g. /He made Shin Jaa wash the
# dishes/).
# - What happens to the causee in each type of causative?
# - Does the causative morphosyntax also serve other functions (e.g.
# permissive, applicative, benefactive, instrumental, etc.)?
# - Are there any other interesting or unusual facts about causatives in the
# language?
**** Applicatif
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-578be841-9d4e-45bf-99a7-2969887e61d9
:END:
# - Are there any operations by which a participant which has a semantic role
# normally expressed in an “oblique” phrase can “advance” to direct object
# status?
# - What semantic roles are subject to these operations and how common are
# these constructions?
**** Déplacement datif
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-114ace73-6554-41d6-b215-a4008d0cecc2
:END:
# - Is there a dative-shift construction?
# - What semantic roles can be “dative-shifted”?
# - Is dative shift obligatory?
**** Datif d’intérêt
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-acb2ac0a-d3ee-4eab-a9ad-d2e56c7d9e7e
:END:
**** Possession exterieure
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-ea45c49e-434b-4033-a204-f4f134bc9743
:END:
*** Diminution de valence
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-57ce8a8b-aa0e-4021-ad4b-768bb4d22d5e
:END:
**** Réflexifs et réciproques
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-e24ca699-b946-4a20-a89a-4e6fcdd04aaf
:END:
# - How are reflexives expressed?
# - Morphologically?
# - Analytically?
# - Are reflexives and reciprocals formally identical?
# - Are there any “unusual” uses of reflexive/reciprocal morphosyntax? For
# example, does a reflexive marker appear in a noun phrase to indicate that
# the possessor of the noun phrase is the same as the subject of the
# clause?
# - Does reflexive/reciprocal morphology ever indicate interclausal
# coreference?
# - Are there other “extended” uses of reflexive or reciprocal morphosyntax?
**** Passifs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-32469595-6713-41f7-82e4-0842363ce78c
:END:
# - Which type(s) of passive constructions does the language have? Exemplify
# each type, and describe its function or functions.
# - Lexical?
# - Morphological?
# - Analytic?
# - Are there “impersonal” passives, i.e. passives of intransitive verbs, or
# passives where there is not necessarily an *agent* implied?
# - Is a passive construction obligatory in any particular environment, e.g.
# when a *patient* outranks an *agent* on some pragmatically defined
# hierarchy?
# - Are there other types of passives?
**** Inverses
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-1b1a41fe-0567-4bd0-9980-70e75136f32d
:END:
# - Does the language have a grammatically instantiated inverse construction?
# If so, what type is it?
**** Constructions moyennes
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-a6f23f5e-5e5c-4a0d-addf-9a2dc94798bd
:END:
# - Are there grammatically instantiated middle constructions?
# - Additional reading: /Kemmer 1993/
**** Antipassifs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-8ae349c3-c9e6-4c00-a8a3-1422bcb759c3
:END:
# - Are there any grammatical structures that specifically function as
# antipassives?
# - Is some other structure used to express transitive concepts when the *P*
# is very low in topicality?
**** Démotion d’objet ou omission
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-e114b8d4-fd80-447b-9807-b740d94250ca
:END:
**** Incorporation d’objet
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-0cbb7721-1e9e-4a4f-b16b-1abbbaf41515
:END:
# - Does the language have object demotion or omission constructions (as
# distinct from antipassives)?
# References: Sapir (1911), Green (1981), Mithun (1984), Sadock (1986).
** Nominalisation
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-ba9b627c-d1c6-46d3-af2a-335e674ea09c
:END:
*** Nominalisation d’action
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-0c34362c-290b-4c16-993d-1aede011f4aa
:END:
*** Nominalisation de participant
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-6283863d-8e9c-4fc8-bd77-b852fdd116c4
:END:
# - Describe the processes (productive or not) that form a noun from a verb.
# Include at least:
# - action nominalization
# - agent nominalization
# - patient nominalization
# - Is there a distinction between agent nominalization that refer to
# characteristic activities (e.g. /teacher/) and those that refer to
# specific events (e.g. /the one who is teaching/)?
**** Nominalisation d’agent
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-a51e1cd9-55a2-440f-bf60-96361d13980d
:END:
**** Nominalisation de patient
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-862598a2-5803-4785-b921-4ffe172d278a
:END:
**** Nominalisation d’instrument
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-1907392e-aa37-49d6-b4a4-c44c16307586
:END:
**** Nominalisation de lieu
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-d1a579d2-b9a5-44b3-8542-03055d1e973f
:END:
**** Nominalisation de produit
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-5fa747d2-b8d2-4c70-a259-3b5389b51590
:END:
**** Nominalisation de manière
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-149cf142-1783-4e08-b581-9c1fbf577987
:END:
*** Nominalisation causale
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-3172c987-3ab3-48de-9b2c-26420ce516ea
:END:
** Composition (y compris l’incorporation)
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-b87bf07b-897a-4ed3-9bb3-9c4f6063402b
:END:
# - Can subject, object and/or nouns be incorporated into the verb?
# - Are there verb-verb compounding processes that result in a verb?
** Temps, aspect, mode
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-7817ca1d-e3ad-48ed-8f79-9039e5c651c7
:END:
*** Temps
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-8f9ad932-6d85-4ea3-b4d5-aada0f48e488
:END:
# - Is there a tense system? How does it operate? Future/non-future,
# past/non-past, past/present/future, or other? (You may want tot treat
# these separately or group them, depending on how the language works.)
*** Aspects
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-ec16ad8f-69c7-44bc-ad20-da6d9188b3d1
:END:
# - How is aspect expressed?
*** Modes
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-c7d2c230-6431-42f5-bf7a-dd70e61499f3
:END:
# - Is there a clear dividing line between tense/aspect and mode (probably
# not)?
# - What are the modes?
# - Is the case-marking pattern influenced at all by TAM?
*** Lieux/direction
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-94eb465d-d084-4d4b-9390-618ed43a4606
:END:
# - Does the language employ verbal affixes or verb-phrase grammatical
# functors that specify the spatial orientation or grounding of the
# situation?
*** Référence participante
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-1aa99e09-4706-4ede-8888-7aed826549dd
:END:
# - Does the language mark the person and/or number of verbal agreements or
# speech act participants on the verb?
# - Provide charts of the various paradigms.
*** Évidentialité, validation et mirativité
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-52d58b47-a607-4f9b-9fa8-f960d3ab50cc
:END:
# - Are there any grammaticalized indicators of evidentiality,
# validationality, or mirativity?
*** Divers
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-552d73fa-eee2-46d8-9225-42431b4d7820
:END:
# - Does the language have any other “miscellaneous” verb or verb-phrase
# operations?
# - For any such miscellaneous operations, argue for why you have not treated
# them as TAM or location/direction marking.
** Structures marquées pragmatiquement
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-eaf98d70-ee47-43bc-92e3-425c940a4493
:END:
*** La morphosyntaxe de l’attention, du contraste et du sujet
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-81bddead-67b2-4183-94a8-d9608c14c5ff
:END:
**** Variation d’ordre des constituants
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-6d3d502c-89da-4c88-9bb0-0e08fa3cced8
:END:
# - Are there special devices for indicating pragmatic statuses in basic
# clauses, e.g. special constituent orders, left- and right-dislocation,
# affixes, or particles indicating referentiality, specificity, topic,
# focus, contrast, etc.?
# - Describe cleft constructions. If possible, give a characterization of
# their discourse functions.
**** Négation
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-0b72b283-9ce9-4078-8d44-e8cc85c554e1
:END:
# - What is the standard means of forming a negative clause in this language?
# - What secondary strategies are there? When are they usedQ
# - Is there constituent negation? Derivational negation?
# - How is morphology normally associated with negation employed in creative
# ways in discourse?
**** Actes de parole non-déclaratifs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-926244cf-335f-4eb1-842d-05f483e791e3
:END:
***** Impératifs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-857e4f5d-623e-4ea6-8263-96cd90b724dc
:END:
# - How are imperatives formned?
# - Are there “polite” imperatives that contrast with more direct
# imperatives?
# - Are there “first person” imperatives (e.g. /Let’s eat/)? If so, how are
# they used?
***** Questions absolues
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-b273f0de-ba6d-49c7-9eba-c49dbb527d4b
:END:
# - How are yes/no questions formed?
***** Questions relatives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-3732004d-f013-4d12-bae8-ba1ed7359ece
:END:
# - How are information questions formed?
*** Particules contrastives et emphatiques
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-772ee454-b2dc-4461-b619-e1c60a2e9fdf
:END:
*** Motifs d’intonation contrastifs et emphatiques
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-9c0eda5f-2dd9-4011-aed5-07214524ab8d
:END:
** Combinaison de clauses
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-60c13fa4-7a4a-44db-8ade-28e39243a390
:END:
*** Verbes de série
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-42ff20dc-0552-463d-901c-997bb7f1b3f5
:END:
# - Does the langugae have serial verbs (or “co-verbs” in the East Asian
# tradition)?
# - Which verbs are most likely to occur in serial constructions?
# - Are there any that are losing their semantic content and becoming more
# like auxiliaries, adpositions, or TAM markers when they occur in serial
# constructions?
*** Clauses complémentaires
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-56f6552e-6604-4dde-98cb-6286f3f6291e
:END:
# - What kinds of complement clause does the language have?
# - Are particular complement types common for particular classes of
# complement-taking verbs?
# - Does the language allow subject and object complements, or just object
# complements?
*** Clauses adverbiales
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-69e269b0-ded6-4188-8fb2-869921f27375
:END:
# - How are adverbial clauses formed?
# - What kinds of adverbial clauses are there, e.g. time, manner, purpose,
# reason, consequence, sequence, conditional?
# - Can adverbial clauses occur in more than one place in a clause?
# - If so, are there any differences in meaning associated with the various
# allowable positions for any given adverbial clause type?
# - Among the conditionals, are there any subdivisions, e.g. contrafactual
# (/*If I had done it differently*, that wouldn’t have happenned/),
# hypothetical (/*If I were you*, I’d do it differently/)?
# - What restrictions are there on the TAM marking of conditional clauses?
*** Enchaînement de clauses, clauses médianes et changement de référence
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-2fe752f2-8586-4fd2-85de-a0f94f04be07
:END:
# - Does the language have any grammaticalized device that explicitly
# indicates whether a participant in one clause is the same as or different
# than some participant in another clause?
# If so, answer the following questions:
# - What direction does the dependency go? That is, does a marker signal
# coreferentiality with a yet to be mentioned participant, or an already
# mentioned participant? (Maybe both, depending on other factors.)
# - What can “antecede” one of these markers? That is, is coreferentiality
# always with respect to a “subject” participant, or can non-subject
# *agent*, or nominal of other grammatical relations also antecede a
# coreference form?
# - On What categories of elements can these markers go, e.g. verbs, nouns,
# conjunctions, etc.?
# - Can one clause be inflected for the person/number of the subject of some
# other clause?
# - Does the markers of interclausal coreference also carry other information,
# e.g. tense/aspect or semantic relations between clauses?
# - How extensive is this phenomenon?
*** Clauses relatives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-a7892774-5608-47c3-a66a-fef0a11acea2
:END:
# - What kind of relative clauses does the language have?
# - Prenominal?
# - Postnominal?
# - Internally headed?
# - Headless?
# - Correlative?
# - What positions on the following relativizability hierarchy can be
# relativized?
# subject > direct object > indirect object > oblique > possessor
# - What RC type of “case recoverability strategy“ is used for each position?
*** Coordination
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-1e8799b0-9cce-4bff-a5b2-f237ed0715fb
:END:
# - How are the following kinds of logical relations between clauses typically
# expressed?
# - Conjunction (a and b)/(neither a nor b)?
# - Disjunction (a or b)?
# - Exclusion (a and not b)?
** Utilisation de la langue
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-410b5fac-bda1-4c79-9f74-9bd747666e2c
:END:
*** Continuité (cohésion) et discontinuité
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-0a5942b9-40eb-4289-bc48-c8e261d396e1
:END:
# - What are the discourse functions of the various referential devices? That
# is, which code highly continuous referents, and which code highly
# discontinuous referents?
# - Related questions: how are referents introduced into narrative and/or
# conversational discourse?
# - Are referents introduced differently depending on whether or not they are
# “destined” to figure prominently in the following text? (That is, does the
# language clearly distinguish introductions of “discourse manipulable”
# referents?)
# - Are there different coding devices used to introduce referents that have
# some honorific status?
# - How is tense/aspect marking deployed in discourse? (Answer will probably
# vary according to genre)
# - What morphosyntactic device are used to signal the “events” in a narrative
# discourse? What about the “non-events”, i.e. collateral descriptive
# material?
# - What devices are used to ascribe special prominence to portions of text?
# - Can you isolated the /kinds/ of prominence that the language is sensitive
# to?
# - Are there special morphosyntactic devices characteristically used at the
# climax or peak of a narrative?
# - Is there a recognizable peak in other genres?
# - Are rhetorical questions and/or negations used as “highlighting” devices
# in discourse? Give examples.
**** Continuité de sujet (référenciel)
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-48bbdda1-6153-4bb2-9329-41acb5ed4e16
:END:
**** Continuité de thème
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-c101a6e6-3235-497c-93b0-8d1a33d6014b
:END:
**** Continuité d’action
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-98780284-20cb-4ddd-ac75-55454ac31dd1
:END:
**** Prominence épisodique
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-d2e427d9-a12d-4930-ae84-b6f2e1db22e9
:END:
***** Apogée, point de culminance
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-0a5068b2-1d91-4fa1-b8c6-163ceef8ded9
:END:
***** Intensification
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-c4f61aa8-4b31-49e4-87d3-222105840b36
:END:
*** Genres
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-c001376f-4df2-4340-a181-62ab0e1eb645
:END:
# - What discourse genre are demonstrably distinct in this language? Exemplify
# and discuss the significant characteristics for each.
**** Conversation
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-93c266a5-2f68-4bce-9d28-4fd6ae52640d
:END:
**** Narratif
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-0a1db1a3-6460-4f55-999b-28c0f4dad61b
:END:
***** Expériences personnelles
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-098a7c39-cf64-4312-9b76-c2869e2da5de
:END:
***** Historique
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-cc748a7e-07be-4a8e-b5fa-59273aeb307c
:END:
***** Histoires folkloriques
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-917be5b0-5b4e-4b21-a52e-e40131e09921
:END:
***** Mythologie
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-6c431938-12f9-4d8a-89e0-a61a8aaeba3b
:END:
**** Pressant
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-068bfae1-e695-4d50-9ab4-dd7cb8bd07f3
:END:
**** Procédurel
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-f1217ba9-c667-460e-98a9-c57b8e4bf26b
:END:
**** Informatif
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-fceaaa34-b2ac-4296-a8d6-56d0cb5baa21
:END:
**** Descriptif
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-62923698-ff3e-4d49-b0bc-7f51fc465733
:END:
**** Élocution rituelle
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-b437a999-0294-43a6-8752-ba282078c026
:END:
*** Typologie lexicale
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-e6d10a54-078f-4cc0-8a07-28a6fed468ba
:END:
**** Espace, directions et déplacements
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-997b8c61-cb5d-40f9-92c1-6e17cfaddce3
:END:
**** Causation
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-44afa9f9-5dc8-4883-90f5-a214b455eef9
:END:
**** Valence
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-39f2e9c1-f91f-4e64-b667-c89a3c9edf77
:END:
**** Prépondérance des caractéristiques sémantiques
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-5ab18e70-8101-417d-be7e-1d87cb85a6ed
:END:
*** Divers et conclusions
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-ee4f1d3a-b677-450c-ae7e-0058b3951ad0
:END:
**** Expressions idiomatiques et proverbes
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-f4be97ec-4df3-40e2-ae76-73ddf08134a1
:END:
**** Symbolisme sonore
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-5556ebe6-940e-40ee-8a97-c2bfd6c0e9e1
:END:
# - Does the language make extensive and productive use of sound symbolism?
# - What are some common ideophones?
# - How is the phonological system of ideophones and sound symbolism
# different than that of the rest of the language?
# - How is the morphology different? How is the syntax different?
**** Découvertes typologiques
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-e7e10073-62f0-443e-83d1-6db24687d7bb
:END:
# - What are the features of this language that are particularly interesting?
# - What typological surprises does it present?
# - How does this work contribute to our understanding of the notion
# “possible human language”? What directions for further research do you
# recommend and/or plan to undertake yourself?
# - Can you qualitatively describe the “character” of this language? What are
# its dominant features?
# - What are the characteristics of a skilled orator in this language?
# - Can you provide some explicit examples that will contribute to the
# reader’s sense of how this language is used? Some possibilities might be
# jokes, prayers, metaphorical expressions, or other culturally relevent
# discourse samples.
* Annexes
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-abba570c-9f4e-4b85-9fdf-2d17707a3c1a
:END:
** Textes avec traduction interlinéaire
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-23b6ac25-c290-4121-95ef-66897fd6a93d
:END:
** Dictionnaire
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-c8df23fa-b5d5-4c98-a4b3-df515d59a00d
:END:
* Data not to be exported :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-045a2761-1193-4ca7-ad37-c9d200313dd5
:END:
* Footnotes
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: h-defe47b2-686b-4d1c-ba9b-c84e6c482478
:END:
[fn:2] [[https://phundrak.fr]]
[fn:1] [[https://langue.phundrak.fr]]