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@ -1037,7 +1037,7 @@ table [[tab:vow:dipththongs]] lists the Eittlandic diphthongs.
|-----------+-----------|
| ei | {{{phon(ɑɪ)}}} |
| au | {{{phon(ɔʊ)}}} |
| ey | {{{phon(œʏ)}}} |
| ey | {{{phon(œʏ)}}} |
#+name: vow-dot-gen
#+header: :var vowels=vowels-featural-list
@ -1148,7 +1148,7 @@ equivalent in Standard Eittlandic, as shown in table [[vow:accent:east]]
| Rural Eastern Eittlandic | Standard Eittlandic |
|--------------------------+---------------------|
| {{{phon(i)}}} | {{{phon(ɪ)}}} |
| {{{phon(y)}}} | {{{phon(ʏ)}}} |
| {{{phon(y)}}} | {{{phon(ʏ)}}} |
| {{{phon(u)}}} | {{{phon(ʊ)}}} |
On the other hand, Southern Eittlandic tends to front its {{{phon(ɑ)}}} into
@ -1450,45 +1450,81 @@ table [[tbl:eittlandic-example-noun-inflexions]].
|---+------------+------------------+-----------------+---------------+------------|
| | Sing. Nom. | heim-r | tíð | skip | tím |
| | Acc. | heim | tíð | skip | tím |
| | Gen. | heim-s | tíð-s | skip-s | tím-s |
| | Gen. | heim-ar | tíð-ar | skip-s | tím |
| | Dat. | heim | tíð | skip | tím |
| | Plur. Nom. | heim-r | tíð-r | skip | tím-r |
| | Acc. | heim | tíð-r | skip | tím |
| | Gen. | heim | tíð | skip | tím |
| | Dat. | heim-um | tíð-um | skip-um | tím-um |
As you can see, grammatica cases disappeared in singular nominative
(except for strong mascuine nouns), accusative, and dative as well as
in plural accusative and genitive. The only markers remaining are for
singular genitive, plural nominative and dative as well as singular
nominative for strong masculine words. Note however that strong nouns
are no longer productive and get slowly replaced with weak nouns.
As you can see, a good amount of declensions disappeared from nouns,
with only four marked cases for strong masculine and feminine nouns
and two for strong neuter and weak nouns. The declension system
completely merged for weak nouns which are no longer distinguished by
gender, as did the different declensions among the other categories
--- e.g. there is only one declension remaining for strong masculine
nouns as opposed to Old Norses three different possible declensions
for the nouns.
Note also how the last column in table
[[tbl:eittlandic-example-noun-inflexions]] is not /Weak masculine/ as in
table [[tbl:old-norse-noun-inflexions]] but /Weak Nouns/. This is due to
weak nouns inflexions merging together, yet again due to the final
vowel loss and regularization of these inflexions. Only strong nouns
remain separated, although by minor differences. All nouns get a case
marker /-s/ for singular genitive, /-r/ for plural nominative, and /-um/ for
plural dative. However, strong masculine nouns also get an /-r/ on
singular nominative nouns, strong feminine nouns get an /-r/ on plural
accusative nouns, and strong neuter nouns lose their /-r/ on plural
nominative nouns.
Declensions are no longer productive in almost all Modern Eittlandic
dialects. They are still mostly used in formal and written speech, but
they are less and less used in less formal circumstances and in oral
speech. The Royal Academy for Literature, which authored Standard
Eittlandic, even recommends not using grammatical cases when using
this dialect as they are reduntand with other syntactic strategies.
While the recommendation is mostly followed, speakers still tend to
use the singular genetive declension oraly. Younger folks at the time
of writing even tend to regularize it as /-ar/ for strong neuter and
weak nouns.
Note also the /-r/ suffix becomes an /-n/ when added to a word ending with
an <n>. For instance, the word /brún/ (/eyebrow/) becomes /brúnn/ in its
plural nominative form instead of /brúnr/.
The only exception to declensions no longer being productive is in the
Hylfjaltr Kingdoms exclave in southern Eittland where speakers of its
local dialect tend to instead favor strong nouns for newer terms.
Hence, while most dialects agree on “internet” (pl.nom /internetr/,
pl.dat /internetum/) being a weak noun, this dialect treats it as either
a strong feminine (sg.gen /internetar/, pl.nom&acc /internetr/, pl.dat
/internetum/) or a strong neuter (sg.gen /internets/, pl.dat /internetum/)
--- the difference is due to subdivisions in said dialect between
rural and urban areas favoring the former and the latter respectively.
Case markers are no longer productive and only server for redundancy
with Modern Eittlandics syntax. The Royal Academy for Literature,
which authored Standard Eittlandic, even recommends not using them to
simplify the language, as they deemed them no longer necessary for
understanding Eittlandic. While this recommendation is widely adopted
by Standard Eittlandic speakers, singular genitive /-s/ still remains
used even in this dialect.
There are some regular exceptions to the declension system. The first
one, inherited from Old Norse, is the /-r/ suffix becoming /-n/ or /-l/ when
a noun ends with an <n> or an <l> respectively, hence
[[tbl:irregular-noun-declensions]] showing the declensions of strong
masculine /himn/ (/heaven/) and strong feminine /hafn/ (/harbour/, /haven/).
#+name: tbl:irregular-noun-declensions
| / | <r> | | |
| | Sing. Nom. | himnn | hafn |
| | Acc. | himn | hafn |
| | Gen. | himnar | hafnar |
| | Dat. | himn | hafn |
| | Plur. Nom. | himnn | hafnn |
| | Acc. | himn | hafnn |
| | Gen. | himn | hafn |
| | Dat. | himnum | hafnum |
*** Articles and Demonstratives :noexport:
During the last five centuries, the root of the word got regularized
so that only one or two forms are allowed. Due to umlaut or ablaut, it
is possible the main vowel of a word changes between its singular and
plural form, even sometimes affecting its dative form. These changes
are due to old vowels long gone since --- with most even gone by the
time of Old Norse. These changes mainly remains in a few common words.
[[tbl:irregularities-root-nouns]] gives some examples of such
irregularities. These words are marked as irregular in the dictionary.
#+name: tbl:irregularities-root-nouns
| / | <r> | | | | |
| | | kettle (m.) | foot (m.) | book (f.) | water (n.) |
|---+------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+------------|
| | Sing. Nom. | ketll | fótr | bók | vatn |
| | Acc. | ketl | fót | bók | vatn |
| | Gen. | ketlar | fótar | bókar | vatn |
| | Dat. | ketl | fót | bók | vatn |
| | Plur. Nom. | katll | fœtr | bœkr | vótnn |
| | Acc. | katl | fœt | bœkr | vótn |
| | Gen. | katl | fœt | bœk | vótn |
| | Dat. | katlum | fótum | bókum | vótnum |
*** Articles and Demonstratives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Articles-and-Demonstratives-owb6umu058j0
:END:
@ -1501,6 +1537,21 @@ used even in this dialect.
# - How many degrees of distance are there in the system of
# demontsratives?
# - Are there other distinctions beside distances?
When the noun of a nominal group is not a mass noun or a proper noun,
an article must accompany it, except for indefinite plural nouns. The
indefinite article is /einn/, the same term as /one/ in Eittlandic. It
partially agrees in gender, being /einn/ for strong masculine and
feminine nouns and /eitt/ for strong neutral and weak nouns.
Definite articles are affixes to the noun and are inserted between the
noun itself and its declension if it has one. For instance, the
definite singular genitive of /vatn/ (/water/, strong neutral) is /vatnits/,
using /-it/ as the definite marker. Like the indefinite article, the
suffix agrees in gender with /-in/ as the suffix for strong masculine
and feminine words while /-it/ prefixes strong neutral and weak nouns.
Just like with noun endings, if the case marking is an /-r/ following an
/-in/, the latter will become an /-n/ as in /hundinn/ (/the dog/, sg.nom.m).
*** Possessives :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Possessives-8xc6umu058j0

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@ -930,8 +930,6 @@ dune phrase nominale sans être son élément principal.
Quelquun ma vu ? Oui, moi
Dans le premier exemple ci-dessus,
**** Pronoms démonstratifs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Pronoms_et_clitiques-Pronoms_démonstratifs-84b54047

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@ -25,12 +25,12 @@
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#+html_head: <meta name="twitter:site" content="@phundrak" />
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@ -884,21 +884,22 @@ reached on this point, most of them might be older innovations.
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-aywhtyt058j0
:END:
*** Names
*** Nouns
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Names-ztxhtyt058j0
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-World-Classes-Nouns-hu0ktba1zfj0
:END:
# - What are the distributional properties of nouns?
# - What are the structural properties of nouns?
# - What are the major formally distinct subcategories of nouns?
# - What is the basic structure of the noun word (for polysynthetic
# languages) and/or noun phrases (for more isolating languages)?
Names in Proto-Ñyqy generally refer to defined entities, such as
Nouns in Proto-Ñyqy generally refer to defined entities, such as
objects, people, concepts, or events. Regardless of their role during
locution, a noun bears no morphological information such as its
syntactic role or its number. However, nouns can associate with each
other and act as adjectives. More on that in
§[[#Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Descriptive-Adjectives-pcpelau058j0]].
other and act as adjectives.
# More on that in
# §[[#Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Descriptive-Adjectives-pcpelau058j0]].
Noun phrases in Proto-Ñyqy are head-first, meaning the noun in noun
phrases come relatively early although the former is built around the
former and not exclusively after it. Noun phrases are mainly found as
@ -908,14 +909,16 @@ genitive and dative constructions.
The nouns could most likely take genitive pronouns, but how they
interacted exactly is yet unsure. The
**** Countables and Uncountables
**** Countables and Uncountables :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Names-Countables-and-Uncountables-sqyhtyt058j0
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-World-Classes-Nouns-Countables-and-Uncountables-t7dduha1zfj0
:END:
**** Proper Nouns
**** Proper Nouns :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Names-Proper-Nouns-0ozhtyt058j0
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-World-Classes-Nouns-Proper-Nouns-cczduha1zfj0
:END:
*** Pronouns and Anaphoric Clitics
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Pronouns-and-Anaphoric-Clitics-9k0ityt058j0
@ -927,15 +930,111 @@ interacted exactly is yet unsure. The
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Pronouns-and-Anaphoric-Clitics-Personal-Pronouns-cps4r0u058j0
:END:
It seems only three pronouns existed in Proto-Ñyqy, one for each of
the persons you would find in a typical language, as shown in
[[table:pronouns]].
#+name: table:pronouns
#+caption: Proto-Ñyqy pronouns
| <l> | |
| / | < |
| Person | Pronoun |
|--------+-----------|
| 1 | {{{recon(qy)}}} |
| 2 | {{{recon(bú)}}} |
| 3 | {{{recon(zø)}}} |
It appears Proto-Ñyqy pronouns did not have any morphological rule to
make them agree in number and due to the apparent lack of gender
neither did they agree with it. However, it is possible that at some
stage of the development of the language, Proto-Ñyqy began affixing
cardinal numbers in order to its pronouns up until the number “six”
{{{recon(ñy)}}} which would have marked a general plural. It is very much
possible all numbers up to {{{recon(ñy)}}} were used with pronouns, however
only remains of it as well as {{{recon(qi)}}} (/two/) for some dual or paucal,
and in the case of the Tiltinian family {{{recon(nø)}}} (/three/) was used for
trial and later on for paucal. No remains of {{{recon(gø)}}}, {{{recon(co)}}} or
any number higher than {{{recon(ñy)}}} is found in its daughter languages.
It is also unlikely {{{recon(mi)}}} (/one/) was ever used to mark the
singular, or at least its usage never persisted in its recorded
daughter languages as it cannot be reconstructed with our current
knowledge.
# The order in which these cardinal numbers are affixed to
# the pronoun depend on the numbers word order described in
# [[#Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Numerals-4gvelau058j0]].
- {{{recon(møgusqim qy ij)}}}
| møgusq | im | qy | ij |
| village | towards | 1sg | go |
Im going to the village
- {{{recon(møgusqim qyqi ij)}}}
| / | | <l> | | |
| møgusq | im | qy | qi | ij |
| village | towards | 1 | two/DU | go |
We both are going to the village
- {{{recon(møgusqim qynø ij)}}}
| / | | <l> | | |
| møgusq | im | qy | nø | ij |
| village | towards | 1 | 3/TRI/PAUC | go |
We three are going to the village
- {{{recon(møgusqim ñyqy ij)}}}
| / | | | <l> | |
| møgusq | im | ñy | qy | ij |
| village | towards | six/PL | 1 | go |
We are going to the village
It doesnt appear either that there was any morphology associated to
their grammatical case. All of its daughter languages have at least a
distinction between nominative, accusative, and genitive pronouns, but
it appears they all evolved after the Proto-Ñyqy breakup, with no
relation between the main daughter language families. The best example
is the striking difference between the Andelian and the Mojhal
families despite the fact they both come from Proto-Mojhal-Andelian
which is the earliest known language to split off from Proto-Ñyqy, as
well as Proto-Tiltinian and Old Pritian which again have no
similarities regarding their pronoun declensions. The only common
roots found are these three pronouns described in [[table:pronouns]].
Personal pronouns are free pronouns which do not need to be bound to
other elements in a sentence.
1. {{{recon(qibú qy qe)}}}
| qi | bú | qy | qe |
| DU | 2 | 1sg | see |
I see them both
2. {{{recon(qyim ñocm qe)}}}? {{{recon(ee qy)}}}
| qy | im | ñocm | qe |
| 1sg | DAT | someone | see |
| ee | qy |
| yes | 1sg |
Does anyone see me? Yes, me.
**** Demonstrative Pronouns
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Pronouns-and-Anaphoric-Clitics-Demonstrative-Pronouns-2qt4r0u058j0
:END:
**** Possessive Pronouns
Four levels of demonstratives seems to have existed in Proto-Ñyqy:
- {{{recon(bœce)}}} :: near the speaker
- {{{recon(pue)}}} :: near the interlocutor
- {{{recon(yqe)}}} and {{{recon(jœe)}}} :: distant from the speakers
It is interesting to see here a common pattern among languages which
is demonstratives pronouns coming from words meaning “here” or
“there”. In that case, these pronouns are derived from {{{recon(bœc)}}},
{{{recon(pu)}}}, {{{recon(yq)}}}, and {{{recon(jœ)}}}.
We are not sure about the difference between {{{recon(yq)}}} and {{{recon(jœ)}}}.
It is theorized they had differences in distance between the element
described by the pronoun and the speakers, maybe one describing
something that could be seen and the other not. In any case, only one
of the two survived in each language family so we cannot compare their
use in documented languages.
**** Possessive Pronouns :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Pronouns-and-Anaphoric-Clitics-Possessive-Pronouns-2pu4r0u058j0
:END:
*** Verbs
*** Verbs :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-xg1ityt058j0
:END:
@ -970,7 +1069,7 @@ interacted exactly is yet unsure. The
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Verbs-Verbal-Inflexions-443cf8u058j0
:END:
*** Modifiers
*** Modifiers :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-yw5cf8u058j0
:END:
@ -999,7 +1098,7 @@ interacted exactly is yet unsure. The
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Numerals-4gvelau058j0
:END:
*** Adverbs
*** Adverbs :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Adverbs-6lxelau058j0
:END:
@ -1012,11 +1111,11 @@ interacted exactly is yet unsure. The
# morphemes common to the type, etc.
# - Are any of these classes of adverbs related to older
# complement-taking (matrix) verbs?
*** Adpositions
*** Adpositions :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Adpositions-isib3bu058j0
:END:
*** Grammatical Particules
*** Grammatical Particules :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Grammatical-Particules-q0kb3bu058j0
:END: