diff --git a/content/en/eittlandic.org b/content/en/eittlandic.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..05e459f --- /dev/null +++ b/content/en/eittlandic.org @@ -0,0 +1,1512 @@ +#+title: Eittland +#+subtitle: A Linguistic Overview of the Land of the Last Nordic Pagans +#+setupfile: ../headers +#+language: en +#+html_head: +#+html_head: +#+html_head: +#+subject: Eittland and its languages +#+uid: https://langue.phundrak.com/en/eittlandic +#+options: auto-id:t +#+latex_header: \usepackage{allrunes} +#+macro: rune (eval (conlanging-to-org-runes $1 'eittlandic)) +#+latex_header: \linespread{1.15} +#+latex_header: \usepackage{glossaries} +#+latex_header: \makeglossaries +#+latex: \printglossaries + +* Foreword +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Introduction-Foreword-d22hjv20e5j0 +:UNNUMBERED: t +:END: +Redistribution or sale of this document is strictly prohibited. This +document is protected by French law on copyright and is completely +owned by its author[fn:3] (myself, Lucien “Phundrak” Cartier-Tilet). +This document is released for free in various formats on the author’s +website[fn:1], the language is released under the CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 +licence[fn:2]. + +If you got this document by any other mean than a website on the +~.phundrak.com~ domain, please report it as soon as possible. There is +currently no agreement with the author to redistribute it by any mean +possible. If you wish to redistribute it, please contact the author. + +This document is about a constructed language (conlang) I created. It +will be written as an in-universe document, in an alternate history +where the Eittlandic Kingdom actually exists in our world, with its +history intertwined with ours. Any vague part about any linguistical +or cultural aspect is most likely due to a lack of worldbuilding, so +if you read something along the lines of “more research needs to be +done on the subject” simply means I have not yet written on it (or I +may not plan to). + +This is a work of fiction. Any resemblance to persons living or dead, +to any real event, or any real people is purely coincidental. + +* Eittland +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-iz98ngl0jaj0 +:END: +Eittland (Eittlandic: Eittland {{{rune(eittland)}}} {{{phon(aɪtlãd)}}}) is part of +the family of Nordic countries, with a population of 31.5 millions as +per the 2019 national census. It has a superficy of 121 km^{2}, making it +the second largest island in Europe after Great Britain. Its capital +Đeberget is the largest eittlandic city with a population of 1.641.600 +in 2019. The island is naturally separated in two, its western and +eastern sides, by a chain of volcanoes spawning on the separation of +the North American and the Eurasian plates, much like its northern +sister Iceland. Thus, its Eastern side covers 49km^{2} of the island and +hosts 11.3 million inhabitants while the western side covers 72km^{2} +with a population of 20.1 millions. + +** Geography +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Geography-gox58hn0jaj0 +:END: +Eittland is an active volcanic island. In its center we can find the +most active volcanoes, surrounded by glaciers and some regular +mountains. It is surrounded by some taiga, taiga plains covered mainly +by ashen pines (/pinus fraxinus/), and a large cold desert covering most +of the center of the island and its northern eastern part. Outside of +this largely unpopulated region, Eastern Eittland mainly consists of +grasslands with some temperate rainforests on its southern shores as +well as some occasional wetland and marshes. On the other hand, +Western Eittland has a lot more temperate deciduos forests, temperate +rainforests and some more wetlands and marshes still. Three small cold +deserts spawn in Western Eittland, including one north east of +Đeberget not far from the city. More details can be found in the map +[[img:map-biomes]]. Overall, the southern and western parts of Eittland +can be compared to Scotland in terms of temperatures, or a warmer +Iceland. +#+CAPTION: Biomes of the Eittlandic Island +#+attr_html: :loading lazy +#+attr_latex: :float sideways +#+NAME: img:map-biomes +[[file:img/eittland/map-biomes.png]] + +Eastern Eittland is also recognizable by its great amount of flat +shorelines, especially in its northern and eastern parts which are part +of the more recent paths of lava flows. On the other hand, its few +fjords and the numerous fjords found in the western part of the island +are characteristic of much older parts of Eittland. The Fjord +themselves were formed during the last ice age, while the smoother +shore lines formed since. Western Eittland also has two main bays +which are two very old caldeira volcanoes. It is not known whether +they will be one day active again or not. + +** Culture +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Culture-q6uf2gs0uaj0 +:END: +The Eittlandic people share a common basis for their culture which +remained rather conservative for much longer than the other nordic +people due to its resistance towards Christianity conversion. The +number of people adhering to Norse beliefs remained very high through +the ages and only recently began declining, going from 93% of +Eittlanders declaring themselves follower of the Norse Faith in 1950 +to 68% in 2019. This decline is also due to either people converting +to a religion or due to the immigration boom from the last seventy +years, though the main reason is the decline in people identifying to +any faith at all --- the number of atheists went from only 2% of +Eittlanders in 1940 to 15% in 2019. The evolution of the religious +population is shown in the chart [[chart:religions]], and a geographical +distribution of these in 2019 can be found in the map [[map:religion]] --- +note that only the main religion is shown in a particular area and +religions with less people in said area are not shown. You can also +see on said map the population repartition of Eittland. + +#+headers: :cache yes :exports results +#+begin_src gnuplot :file img/eittland/religions.png :var data=eittland-religions +set title "Religions in Eittland since 1950" +set key invert reverse Left outside + +set yrange [0:100] +set grid y +set ylabel "Percentage" + +set border 3 +set style data histograms +set style histogram rowstacked +set style fill solid border -1 +set boxwidth 1 + +plot data u 2:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 lw 3 title 'Norse Faith', \ + data u 3:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 lw 3 title 'Atheism', \ + data u 4:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 lw 3 title 'Church of Eittland', \ + data u 5:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 lw 3 title 'Christianity', \ + data u 6:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 lw 3 title 'Buddhism', \ + data u 7:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 lw 3 title 'Other' +#+end_src + +#+name: chart:religions +#+caption: Religious Evolution of Eittland Since 1900 +#+attr_html: :loading lazy +#+RESULTS[3b10b0ef95c6a0d04471ef81330c2b0c065c9344]: +[[file:img/eittland/religions.png]] + +#+attr_html: :loading lazy +#+attr_latex: :float sideways +#+name: map:religion +#+caption: Religious population of Eittland +[[file:./img/eittland/map-religion.png]] + +There is also a regional cultural difference between Western, Eastern, +and Southern Eittland marked with some differences in traditions and +language. There is currently a nationalist movement in Southern +Eittland so a new state is created within the Kingdom of Eittland. The +repartition of the different eittlandic cultures is shown in the map +[[map:culture]]. +#+name: map:culture +#+caption: Cultural Map of Eittland +#+attr_html: :loading lazy +#+attr_latex: :float sideways +[[file:./img/eittland/map-cultural.png]] + +** Name of the Country +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Name-of-the-Country-hun23je06bj0 +:END: +The root of the name of “Eittland” is the accusative of /einn/ (Old +Norse /one/, /alone/) and /land/ (Old Norse /country/, /land/. This is due to +how remote it seemed to the people who discovered, before Iceland and +Greenland were known. Hence, a possible translation of “Eittland” can +be /Lonely Land/. The term “Eittlandic” is relatively transparent +considering the term “Icelandic” for “Iceland” and “Greenlandic” for +“Greenland”. + +** History +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-History-9n168hn0jaj0 +:END: +According to historical records, Eittland was first found in 763 by +Norwegian explorers. Its first settlement appeared in 782 on its +eastern shores with hopes of finding new farmland. The population grew +rapidly after the discovery of the southern shores, and in 915 +Eittland became self-governing with Ásmundr Úlfsonn declared the first +Eittlandic king. However, in order to avoid any unnecessary conflicts, +the new king swore allegiance to the Norwegian king Harald I +Halfdansson. Eittland thus became a vassal state to the Norwegian +crown while retaining autonomy from it, which was granted due to the +distance between the two countries. + +Shortly after however, the beginning of the christianisation of the +nordic countries and especially of Norway created a new immigration +boost in Eittland with norsemen seeking a pagan land untouched by +christian faith. In 935, a year after Haakon I Haraldsson became king +of Norway and began trying to introduce Christianity to its people, +the newly crowned king Áleifr I Ásmundson of Eittland adopted a new +law forbidding the Christian faith to be imported, promoted, and +practiced in Eittland. This decision forever weakened the alliance +between the two countries. + +As more and more people in Eittland were moving to its western part +due to larger opportunities with its farmlands, king Áleifr I chose in +936 to move the capital of Eittland from Hylfjaltr to Đeberget and +split in half the country. He appointed his brother Steingrímr, later +known as Steingrímr I Áleifsbróðr, as his co-ruler and gave him +authority over Eastern Eittland while he kept ruling himself over +Western Eittland. This choice is due to the difficulty of going from +one side of the island to the other by land --- lava flows often +forcefully close and destroy paths joining the two parts together. +This gave birth to the two states of the Kingdom of Đeberget (also +called the /Western Eittlandic Kingdom/) and the Kingdom of Hylfjaltr +(also called the /Eastern Eittlandic Kingdom/). More on that can + +** Political Organization +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Political-Organization-z5v4e9p0jaj0 +:END: +*** Kingdoms and Monarchy +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Political-Organization-Political-subdivisions-z32drvy0jaj0 +:END: +While Eittland is a single country, it is host to two kingdoms: the +Kingdom of Đeberget in the western part of the country, and the +Kingdom of Hylfjaltr in its eastern part. This is due to a separation +of the country in two halves during the reign of Eittlands second king +Áleifr I when he realized the difficulties he and the following +monarchs of the island would face trying to rule the country alone +while the latter is almost always split in two by active volcanoes. +Thus, while the two kingdoms operate very independently from each +other --- each have their own policies on economics, education, +industry, and so on --- they also operate in cooperation as the +Eittlandic High Kingdom with the king of Đeberget at its head when it +comes to common policies, such as military decision and internrational +affairs. +#+attr_html: :loading lazy +#+attr_latex: :float sideways +#+CAPTION: The Two Eittlandic States +#+NAME: img:map-political +[[file:./img/eittland/map-political.png]] + +This means that while both governments are independent from each other +and are legally equals to each other, the western monarch is the one +with the authority to decide on national actions after negotiations +between them and the eastern monarch. This is reflected by the throne +rooms found in official buildings such as the royal palaces where +three thrones can be found: a central, very large throne surrounded by +two other identical thrones, the right one for the monarch of +Hylfjaltr and the left one for the king of Đeberget. Most of the time, +both monarchs sit on their side throne, including when they meet each +other as the monarchs of Hylfjaltr and Đeberget. However, when the +monarch of Đeberget is meant to act as the High Monarch of Eittland, +they step up to the central throne and then represent the country as a +whole. + +At the end of the reign of the High King, either through abdication or +their death, his successor is enthroned within a month. Then, within a +year, the new High King has to appoint a new monarch for Hylfjaltr. +Traditionally, the new co-ruler is a brother of the current High +Monarch, however history showed it could be sometimes an uncle, a son, +a sister or even sometimes a daughter. When the eastern monarch either +abdicates or dies, the High Monarch has a month to designate a new +one. + +Up until the 14th century, the monarch of Hylfjaltr was rarely the +successor of the High Monarch. However, High King Ólafr I changed this +tradition and created a new one. He named his brother and co-ruler +King of Eittland and his son Prince of Eittland. From here on, the +King (or occasionally the Queen) of Eastern Eittland was meant to +become the new High Monarch of Eittland and make the Prince (or +occasional Princess) the ruler of Hylfjaltr. Then, once the reign of +the King ends, the Prince becomes the new High King and nominates a +new King and a new Prince. This was done to ensure the upcoming High +Monarch would be prepared in ruling the whole country by first ruling +the state. If anything were to happen to the Prince or Princess of +Eittland while the King or Queen of Hylfjaltr is on the throne, they +would have to nominate a new heir among the other possible heirs +possible for the late High Monarch. + +When the High Monarchs steps up to the central throne, they may +designate someone to fill in the role of the monarch of Đeberget for +the time being. They can also authorize the monarch of Hylfjaltr to do +so in case they are unavailable and someone need to represent the +country in front of foreign representatives. The last example was +during the two last years of Eríkr IX’s reign from 1987 to 1989 when +he could not act as High King due to his illness. While he did not +abdicate, he authorized king Harald III to act as High King while he +appointed his daughter and present-day High Queen Njall III as the +acting monarch of Đeberget. + +*** Regions and Jarldoms +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Political-Organization-Regions-and-Jarldoms-vxsav301jaj0 +:END: +While each kingdom is ruled by a monarch and the country is ruled by +the High Monarch, the kingdoms are divided into several kinds of +subdivisions. The most common one is the jarldom, historically ruled +by and still represented by a jarl during ceremonies. “Jarl” +translates as “Earl” in English, and they were the nobles in charge of +managing parts of the land in the name of the ruler. +#+attr_html: :loading lazy +#+attr_latex: :float sideways +#+CAPTION: Eittlandic Provinces +#+NAME: img:map-provinces +[[file:./img/eittland/map-provinces.png]] + +Some parts of the land are directly under the control of the crown, +such as the districts of Đeberget and Hylfjaltr, which the ruler ruled +without intermediaries. They are the private possessions of the family +of the rulers. + +On top of this the center of the island is divided in territories, one +administered by the government of Đeberget and two by the government +of Hylfjaltr. These territories are supposedly not inhabited by anyone +and are currently natural parks. This is mostly where you can find the +mountains and volcanoes of Eittland as well as its cold deserts. + +Due to the Last Royal Decree of 1826, jarls no longer rule their +jarldom themselves anymore. Instead, a local elected government takes +care of this role now. + +*** Governments +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Political-Organization-Government-zoeav301jaj0 +:END: +**** Monarchy and Things +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Political-Organization-Governments-Monarchy-and-Things-f4i3ii11jaj0 +:END: +The first form of government created in Eittland revolved around +Things, assemblies of various size occasionally created at various +levels of the state to decide on important matters. The Things allow +at first any adult man to participate, but as the population grew some +restrictions were put in place in order to limit the amount of +participants. Only one man could represent a household starting +from 982. Then, starting from 998, only jarls were allowed to the +ruler’s Thing, and only ten jarls from each kingdom, elected among all +the jarls from the same kingdom, would be allowed to attend the High +Monarch’s Thing. These jarls would then act as representatives of the +kingdom to the High King and his counsellors. + +In 1278, the first formal ministry (or department) was created in the +Ðeberget Kingdom, called a /Ráðuneyt/ (litt. “fellowship of +counsellors”) with a /Ráðunautr/ at its head, to aid the King Hallþórr V +Gunhildson’s in administering agriculture. The Hylfjaltr Kingdom soon +followed, creating its own in 1283 by order of Eyvindor III +Steingrímson. From then, ráðuneyts were created as needed with a +growing number. + +**** Constitutional Monarchy +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Political-Organization-Governments-Constitutional-Monarchy-k7y3ii11jaj0 +:END: +In 1826, fearing the revolutionary climate in mainland Europe, Ólafr V +passed the appropriately named “Last Royal Decree” in 1826. This act +put in place a new form of government based on the British monarchy. + +All the royal power from the rulers of Đeberget and Hylfjaltr is +transferred to the House of the People and the House of the Land (the +equivalent of the lower and upper Houses respectively). The House of +the People was composed of men elected during general elections every +eight years. It was decided for each jarldom and district, one +representative would be elected plus another one for each percentage +of the population of the kingdom the jarldom represents. + +A similar system was created for jarldoms in order to replace jarls +with locally elected governments, as well as the organisation of +municipalities. + +At first only male land owner of the Nordic Faith could vote and could +be elected. In 1886, all men of the Nordic Faith got the right to vote +and be elected in the general elections. In 1902, women gained the +right to vote and they gained the right to be elected in 1915. The law +that allowed women to vote also made the authorities stop enforcing +the restriction on the faith of the participants --- while the +original texts of 1826 and 1886 were clear on the fact only men of the +Nordic Faith were allowed to vote and be elected, no such restrictions +were made for women, making it unclear if only women had no faith +restriction or if this restriction was removed for everyone. +Organizers of the next elections in 1914 chose not to enforce this +religious restriction and it stopped being enforced since then. In +1998, Queen Siv I exceptionally used her powers of High Queen to pass a +law to clarify this issue and formally make Eittland a non-religious +country. This also removed the long unenforced ban on other religions +in Eittland. + +It is to be noted that while the rulers of Đeberget and Hylfjaltr have +lost all their power with the “Last Royal Decree”, the High Monarch +remained unaffected by the text though they act as if it were the +case. To replace them, the eastern and western governments elect a +single national representative meant to act as the head of both states +instead of the High Monarch who now holds only a ceremonial position. +However, it happens from time to time the High Monarch passes a law, +although they only write down in the law already well established +traditions, such as the ban on the religious restrictions for voters +which had not been enforced for almost a century by that point. + +Today, Ráðuneyts still exist, but their head is designated no longer +by the monarch but by the House of the People. Here is the list of +Ministries that currently exist in Eittland: +- /Bærráðuneyt/ :: Agriculture Ministry +- Dæmaráðuneyt :: Justice Ministry +- Erlendslandsráðuneyt :: Foreign Affair Ministry +- Fræðiráðuneyt :: Education Ministry +- Heilsráðuneyt :: Health Ministry +- Konungdómráðuneyt :: Kingdom Ministry (State Affairs) +- Náttúrráðuneyt :: Nature Ministry (including ecology) +- Rógráðuneyt :: War Ministry +- Teknikráðuneyt :: Technology Ministry +- Kaupráðuneyt :: Economy Ministry +- Vinnaráðuneyt :: Employment Ministry + +With the separation of the State with its religious departments +following the law of 1998, the Heiðniráðuneyt (the Heathendom +Department) became an entity separate from the Government. Its +Ráðunautr used to be exceptionally appointed by the House of the Land, +unlike the rest of Ráðunautrs. + +* Structural Overview +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-ax13bot058j0 +:END: +** Typological Outline of the Eittlandic Language :noexport: +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Typological-Outline-of-the-Eittlandic-Language-osk84ty0jaj0 +:END: +# - Is the language dominantly isolating or polysynthetic? +# - If the language is at all polysynthetic, is it dominantly +# agglutinative or fusional? Give examples of its dominant pattern +# and any secondary patterns. +# - If the language is at all agglutinative, is it dominantly +# prefixing, suffixing or neither? +# - Illustrate the major and secondary patterns (including infixation, +# stem modification, reduplication, suprasegmental modification, and +# suppletion). +# - If the language is at all polysynthetic, is it dominantly +# "head-marking", "dependent-marking", or mixed? +# - Give some examples of each type of marking the language exhibits. + +** Phonetic Inventory and Translitteration +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-1hrhtyt058j0 +:END: +*** Evolution from Early Old Norse to Eittlandic +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-1m6a2h60uaj0 +:END: +Eittlandic evolved early on from Early Old Norse, and as such some +vowels it evolved from are different than the Old Norse vowels and +consonants some other Nordic languages evolved from. In this chapter, +we will see the main list of attested phonetic evolution Eittlandic +lived through. + +The history of Eittlandic goes from the late 8th century until +modern-day Eittlandic. Its history is divided as shown on table +[[table:history-eittlandic-language]]. It is not an exact science though +as changes happened progressively through the country. Changes were +also progressive, meaning the dates chosen to go from one language to +the other are relatively arbitrary. In evolution examples, it will be +indicated whether the Eittlandic pronunciation is specific to a +certain time area (with /Early Middle Eittlandic/, /Late Old Eittlandic/, +etc…) but if it only specifies /Eittlandic/ it means no significant +changes in pronunciation occurred since the phonetic rule shown. +Meaning is also shown between parenthesis. In case of semantic shift, +its new meaning in Eittlandic is shown --- the same goes for the +word’s spelling. + +#+name: table:history-eittlandic-language +| Period | Language | +|-----------------------------+-------------------| +| 8th century - 12th century | Old Eittlandic | +| 13th century - 16th century | Middle Eittlandic | +| 17th century - today | Modern Eittlandic | + +It is generally considered the gj-shift of the 13th century is the +evolution that marks the change from Old Eittlandic to Middle +Eittlandic while the great vowel shift marks the change from Middle +Eittlandic to Modern Eittlandic between the 16th and the 17th century. + +**** hʷ > ʍ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-w-β-z5s6wdb0uaj0 +:END: +One of the first evolution of the Eittlandic was the evolution of the +{{{phon(hʷ)}}} into a {{{phon(ʍ)}}} (written ). It differs from other nordic +languages which evolved their {{{phon(hʷ)}}} into a {{{phon(v)}}}, like in +Icelandic or in Norwegian. However, this evolution is cause to debate, +mainly due to the original phoneme {{{phon(hʷ)}}} which could be inherited +from Proto-Norse instead. + ++ Example :: Early Old Norse or Late Proto-Norse /hvat/ (what) + {{{phon(hʷat)}}} > Eittlandic /hvat/ (what) {{{phon(ʍat)}}} + +**** C / #h_ > C[-voice] +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-C-h-voice-o4r8mvg08bj0 +:END: +When preceded by a {{{phon(h)}}}, word-initial consonants such as , , + would lose their voicing and become voiceless consonants. Note + went to {{{phon(ç)}}}. + ++ Example :: + - Early Old Norse /hlóð/ (/hearth/) {{{phon(hloːð)}}} > Old Eittlandic /hlóð/ + {{{phon(l̥oːð)}}} + - Early Old-Norse /hneisa/ (/shame, disgrace/) {{{phon(hneisa)}}} > Early Old + Eittlandic {{{phon(n̥eisa)}}} + - Early Old Norse /hrifs/ (/robbery/) {{{phon(hrifs)}}} > Old Norse {{{phon(r̥ifs)}}} + - Early Old Norse /hjól/ (wheel) {{{phon(hjoːl)}}} > Old Eittlandic {{{phon(çoːl)}}} + +**** g / {#,V}_⁣V > ɣ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-g-V-V-ɣ-9mlkdpi08bj0 +:END: +In word-initial position and followed by a vowel or when between +vowels, Early Old Norse {{{phon(g)}}} gets palatalized into a {{{phon(ɣ)}}}. + ++ Example :: Early Old Norse /gegn/ (/against, right opposite/) {{{phon(gegn̩)}}} + > Old Eittlandic {{{phon(ɣegn̩)}}} + +**** V / _⁣# > ∅ ! j _ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-V-f74dgz60uaj0 +:END: +When finishing a word, short unaccented vowels disappeared. +Historically, they first went through a weakening transforming them +into a {{{phon(ə)}}}, but they eventually disappeared before long vowels got +affected by the first part of the rule. However, it did not apply to +final vowels following a . + ++ Example :: Old Norse /heilsa/ (/health/) {{{phon(heilsa)}}} > Late Old + Eittlandic /heils/ {{{phon(heils)}}}. + +Reflecting this change, the last vowel got lost in the Eittlandic +orthography. However, this rule did not get applied consistently with +a good deal of people that kept them well until the [[#Great-Vowel-Shift-7spk7j70uaj0][Great Vowel Shift]]. + +**** V / j_# > ə +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-V-j-ə-3v60pdk08bj0 +:END: +While the final short vowel of words did not disappear when preceded +by a , they still weakened to a schwa. + ++ Example :: Old Norse /sitja/ (/to sit/) {{{phon(sitja)}}} > Old Eittlandic + {{{phon(sitjə)}}} + +**** Vː / _# > ə +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-Vː-ə-9w7dgz60uaj0 +:END: +When at the end of a word, long unaccented vowels get weakened into a +schwa. + ++ Example :: Old Norse /erþó/ (as though) {{{phon(erθoː)}}} > Late Old + Eittlandic {{{phon(erθə)}}}. + +Notice how in the modern orthography the <ó> didn’t get lost, unlike +with the previous rule. Unlike the schwa from the previous rule, the +current schwa still bears the long vowel feature although it is not +pronounced anymore by that point, influencing the rule described in §[[#Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-ə-C-voice-ysvblnk08bj0]]. + +**** ɣ / {#,V}_ > j ! +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-g-V-j-133jvi70uaj0 +:END: +During the 13th century, continued palatalization of the letter +when beginning or preceding a vowel transformed it from {{{phon(g)}}} in +Proto-Norse to {{{phon(ɣ)}}} in Old Eittlandic to {{{phon(j)}}} in Early Modern +Eittlandic. + ++ Example :: Old Norse /gauð/ (a barking) {{{phon(gauð)}}} > Early Middle + Eittlandic /gauð/ (a barking, a quarrel) {{{phon(jauð)}}}. + +This is the first rule of the gj-shift along with the three next +rules, marking the passage from Old Eittlandic to Middle Eittlandic. + +**** gl > gʲ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-gl-gʲ-ys7bn4c0uaj0 +:END: +The exception to the above rule is the remains a hard {{{phon(g)}}} when +followed by an in which case {{{phon(gl)}}} becomes {{{phon(gʲ)}}}. + ++ Example :: Old Norse /óglaðr/ (sad, moody) {{{phon(oːɡlaðr̩)}}} > Early + Middle Eittlandic /óglaðr/ (very sad, miserable) {{{phon(oːɡʲaðr̩)}}} + +**** d g n s t / _j > C[+palat] +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-d-g-h-n-s-t-j-C-palat-l22e89c0uaj0 +:END: +Another exception to the rule in +§[[#Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-t-C-ʔ-x7lfpz90uaj0]] +is the remains a hard {{{phon(g)}}} when followed by a {{{phon(j)}}}, in which +case {{{phon(gj)}}} becomes {{{phon(j)}}}. Other phonemes {{{phon(d)}}}, {{{phon(h)}}}, +{{{phon(n)}}}, {{{phon(s)}}}, and {{{phon(t)}}} also get palatalized, merging with the +following {{{phon(j)}}}. In the end, we have the conversion table given by +the table [[cons:palatalization]]. + +#+name: cons:palatalization +| Early Old Norse | Eittlandic | +|-----------------+------------| +| {{{phon(dj)}}} | {{{phon(dʒ)}}} | +| {{{phon(gj)}}} | {{{phon(j)}}} | +| {{{phon(nj)}}} | {{{phon(ɲ)}}} | +| {{{phon(sj)}}} | {{{phon(ʃ)}}} | +| {{{phon(tj)}}} | {{{phon(tʃ)}}} | + +Note this is also applicable to devoiced consonants from the rule +described in +§[[#Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-C-h-voice-o4r8mvg08bj0]]. + ++ Example :: + - Early Old Norse /djúpligr/ (/deep, deeply/) {{{phon(djuːpliɡr̩)}}} > Middle + Eittlandic /djúpligr/ (/deep, profound/) {{{phon(dʒuːpliɡr̩)}}} + - Early Old Norse /gjøf/ (/gift/) {{{phon(gjøf)}}} > Early Middle Eittlandic + {{{phon(jøf)}}} + - Early Old Norse /snjór/ (/snow/) {{{phon(snjoːr)}}} > Middle Eittlandic + {{{phon(sɲoːr)}}} + - Early Old Norse /hnjósa/ (/to sneeze/) {{{phon(hnjoːsa)}}} > Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ɲ̥oːs)}}} + - Early Old Norse /sjá/ (/to see/) {{{phon(sjaː)}}} > Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃaː)}}} + - Early Old Norse /skilja/ (/to understand, to distinguish/) + {{{phon(skilja)}}} > Early Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiljə)}}} + - Old Eittlandic /sitja/ (/to sit/) {{{phon(sitjə)}}} > Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(sitʃə)}}} + +**** u / V_ > ʊ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-u-V-ʊ-wqbdfb90uaj0 +:END: +When following another vowel, {{{phon(u)}}} becomes an {{{phon(ʊ)}}}. + ++ Example :: Old Norse /kaup/ (/bargain/) {{{phon(kaup)}}} > Early Middle + Eittlandic {{{phon(kaʊp)}}} + +**** {s,z} / _C[+plos] > ʃ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-s-z-C-plos-ʃ-ʒ-i4p0n0b0uaj0 +:END: +If {{{phon(s)}}} or {{{phon(z)}}} precede a plosive consonant, they become +palatalized into a {{{phon(ʃ)}}} --- the distinction between and is lost. + ++ Example :: + - Old Norse /fisk/ (/fish/) {{{phon(fisk)}}} > Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(fiʃk)}}} + - Early Old Norse /vizka/ (/wisdom/) {{{phon(vizka)}}} > Middle Eittlandic /visk/ {{{phon(viʃk)}}} + +Note that in the Modern Eittlandic orthography, the is replaced +with an . + +**** f / {V,C[+voice]}_ {V,C[+voice],#} > v +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-f-V-V-v-v22g0u70uaj0 +:END: +When a is either surrounded by voice phonemes or is preceded by a +voiced phoneme and ends a word, it gets voiced into a {{{phon(v)}}}. + ++ Example :: Old Norse /úlf/ (wolf) {{{phon(uːlf)}}} > Middle Eittlandic /úlv/ {{{phon(uːlv)}}}. + +**** l / _j > ʎ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-l-j-ʎ-hapblzj08bj0 +:END: +When followed by a , any becomes a {{{phon(ʎ)}}}, merging with the +following . + ++ Example :: Early Middle Eittlandic /skilja/ (to understand, to + distinguish) {{{phon(ʃkiljə)}}} > Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiʎə)}}} + +**** ə[-long] / C[+voice]_# > ∅ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-ə-C-voice-ysvblnk08bj0 +:END: +As described in the rule +§[[#Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-Vː-ə-9w7dgz60uaj0]], +the schwa resulting from it kept its long vowel feature although it +wasn’t pronounced anymore. This resulted in the current rule making +all schwas resulting from short vowels at the end of words to +disappear when following a voiced consonant. This basically boils down +to any former short vowel following a in word-final position. + ++ Example :: Middle Eittlandic (to understand, to distinguish) + {{{phon(ʃkiʎə)}}} > Late Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiʎ)}}} + +**** aʊ > oː +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-aʊ-oː-4w88tmg08bj0 +:END: +Sometime in the 15th century, any occurence of , pronounced by +then {{{phon(aʊ)}}}, began shifting to {{{phon(oː)}}}. + ++ Example :: Early Middle Eittlandic /kaup/ (/bargain/) {{{phon(/kaʊp/)}}} > Late + Middle Eittlandic /kaup/ (/commerce/) {{{koːp}}} + +**** C[+long +plos -voice] > C[+fric] ! / _C > C[+long +plos] > C[-long] +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-C-long-plos-voice-C-fric-C-C-long-plos-C-long-77287t90uaj0 +:END: +Unless followed by another consonant, any unvoiced long plosive +consonant becomes a short affricate while other long plosives simply +become shorter. + ++ Example :: + - Old Norse /Edda/ (the book written by Snorri Sturuson) {{{phon(edːa)}}} > Late Eittlandic {{{phon(eda)}}} + - Old Norse /Eittland/ {{{phon(eitːland)}}} > Late Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(eitland)}}} + - Old Norse /uppá/ (/upon/) {{{phon(upːaː)}}} > Late Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(upɸə)}}} + +**** r > ʁ (Eastern Eittlandic) +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-r-ʁ-Eastern-Eittlandic-b20i1pm0bbj0 +:END: +From the beginning of the 16th century, the Eastern Eittlandic {{{phon(r)}}} +began morphing into an {{{phon(ʁ)}}} in all contexts except in word-final +<-r>, remanants of Old Norse’s nominative <-R>. This is typical in the +Eastern region of Eittland and it can be even heard in some dialects +of Southern Eittlandic. + ++ Example :: + - Old Norse /dratta/ (/to trail/ or /walk like a cow/) {{{phon(dratʃ)}}} > Eastern Modern + Eittlandic /dratt/ (/act mindlessly/) {{{phon(dʁatʃ)}}} + - Early Old Norse /fjárdráttr/ (/(unfairly) making money/) + {{{phon(fjaːdraːtːr̩)}}} > Eastern Modern Eittlandic /fjárdráttr/ (/to scam/) + {{{phon(fjɛʁdʁɛtr̩)}}} + +**** Great Vowel Shift +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Great-Vowel-Shift-7spk7j70uaj0 +:END: +The great vowel shift happened during the 16th and 17th century during +which long vowels underwent a length loss, transforming them into +different short vowels. Only three rules governed this shift: +- V[+high +long] > V[-high -long] +- V[+tense +long] > V[-tense -long] +- V[-tense +long] > V[-long -low] + +Hence, the vowels evolved as shown in table [[vow:eittland:evolution]]. +#+name: vow:eittland:evolution +#+caption: Evolution of Old Norse long vowels to Eittlandic short vowels +| Orthography | Old Eittlandic vowel | Modern Eittlandic Vowel | +|-------------+----------------------+-------------------------| +| á | {{{phon(aː)}}} | {{{phon(ɛ)}}} | +| é | {{{phon(eː)}}} | {{{phon(ɛ)}}} | +| í | {{{phon(iː)}}} | {{{phon(e)}}} | +| ó | {{{phon(oː)}}} | {{{phon(ɔ)}}} | +| œ (ǿ) | {{{phon(øː)}}} | {{{phon(œ)}}} | +| ú | {{{phon(uː)}}} | {{{phon(o)}}} | +| ý | {{{phon(yː)}}} | {{{phon(ø)}}} | + +As you can see, some overlap is possible from Old Norse vowels and +Modern Eittlandic vowels. For instance, Eittlanders will read and +<í> both as an {{{phon(e)}}}. + ++ Examples :: + - Middle Eittlandic /sjá/ (/to see/) {{{phon(ʃaː)}}} > Modern Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃɛ)}}} + - Old Norse /fé/ (/cattle/) {{{phon(feː)}}} > Modern Eittlandic /fé/ (wealth) {{{phon(fɛ)}}} + - Late Proto-Norse /hví/ (/why/) {{{phon(hʷiː)}}} > Modern Eittlandic {{{phon(ʍe)}}} + - Old Norse /bók/ (/beech/, /book/) {{{phon(boːk)}}} > Modern Eittlandic (/book/) + {{{phon(bɔk)}}} + - Early Old Norse /œgir/ (/frightener/, /terrifier/) {{{phon(øːɡir)}}} > Modern + Eittlandic /œgir/ (/barbarian/, /pirate/) {{{phon(œjir)}}} + - Middle Eittlandic /úlv/ (/wolf/) {{{phon(uːlv)}}} > Modern Eittlandic {{{phon(olv)}}} + +Diphthongs also evolved following these rules: +- {{{phon(ei)}}} > {{{phon(ɑɪ)}}} +- {{{phon(ou)}}} > {{{phon(ɑʊ)}}} +- {{{phon(øy)}}} > {{{phon(œʏ)}}} + +**** V / _N > Ṽ[-tense] ! V[+high] (Southern Eittlandic) +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-V-N-Ṽ-V-high-ulb1ey80uaj0 +:END: +When preceding a nasal, any vowel that is not high as determined by +the figure [[tree:vowels]] gets nasalized when preceding a nasal consonant +and loses its tenseness if it has any. Hence, the pronunciation of the + in /Eittland/ is {{{phon(ã)}}}. However, Old Norse /runa/ (rune) {{{phon(runa)}}} +becomes /run/ (letter, character, rune) {{{phon(run)}}} without any +nasalization. + +Note this evolution is mostly proeminent in the southern regions of +Eittland and the city of Hundraðskip. It is less often documented in +Eastern Eittland and almost undocumented in Western Eittland. It is +more often documented in casual conversation buch rarer in formal +conversation, especially when the majority of the speakers in a group +are not southerners. + +**** t / _C > ʔ ! _ʃ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-t-C-ʔ-x7lfpz90uaj0 +:END: +When a {{{phon(t)}}} precedes another consonant, it becomes a glottal stop. + ++ Example :: Early Modern Eittlandic /Eittland/ {{{phon(ɑɪtland)}}} > Modern + Eittlandic {{{phon(ɑɪʔland)}}} + +**** V^{U} > ə ! diphthongs (Western Eittlandic) +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-V-U-ə-diphthongs-fjh0pnr0uaj0 +:END: +A recent evolution in Western Eittland is weakening any unstressed +vowel that is not a diphthong to a schwa. It is only documented in +casual speech but almost never in formal speech. + ++ Example :: + - Standard Eittlandic /ádreif/ (spray) {{{phon(ɛdrɑɪv)}}} > Western Casual + Eittlandic {{{phon(ɛdrɑɪv)}}} + - Standard Eittlandic /einlægr/ (/sincere/) {{{phon(ɑɪnlæɡr)}}} > Western + Casual Eittlandic {{{phon(ɑɪnləɡr)}}} + +*** Simple Vowels +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Vowels-vishtyt058j0 +:END: + +#+name: vow-dot-gen +#+header: :var vowels=vowels-featural-list +#+begin_src emacs-lisp :wrap "src dot :file eittland/vowel-feature-tree.png" +(conlanging-list-to-graphviz vowels) +#+end_src + +#+RESULTS[c52a8076dad068d0ed5c7b1b96a1461025993979]: vow-dot-gen +#+begin_src dot :file eittland/vowel-feature-tree.png +graph{graph[dpi=300,bgcolor="transparent"];node[shape=plaintext];"vowels-0jau08yx7y65"[label="vowels"];"+high-0jau08yx7y6e"[label="+high"];"vowels-0jau08yx7y65"--"+high-0jau08yx7y6e";"+round-0jau08yx7y6h"[label="+round"];"+high-0jau08yx7y6e"--"+round-0jau08yx7y6h";"+front-0jau08yx7y6l"[label="+front"];"+round-0jau08yx7y6h"--"+front-0jau08yx7y6l";"/y/-0jau08yx7y6n"[label="/y/"];"+front-0jau08yx7y6l"--"/y/-0jau08yx7y6n";"-front-0jau08yx7y6t"[label="-front"];"+round-0jau08yx7y6h"--"-front-0jau08yx7y6t";"/u/-0jau08yx7y6w"[label="/u/"];"-front-0jau08yx7y6t"--"/u/-0jau08yx7y6w";"-round-0jau08yx7y75"[label="-round"];"+high-0jau08yx7y6e"--"-round-0jau08yx7y75";"/i/-0jau08yx7y78"[label="/i/"];"-round-0jau08yx7y75"--"/i/-0jau08yx7y78";"-high-0jau08yx7y7m"[label="-high"];"vowels-0jau08yx7y65"--"-high-0jau08yx7y7m";"+round-0jau08yx7y7q"[label="+round"];"-high-0jau08yx7y7m"--"+round-0jau08yx7y7q";"+tense-0jau08yx7y7t"[label="+tense"];"+round-0jau08yx7y7q"--"+tense-0jau08yx7y7t";"+front-0jau08yx7y7w"[label="+front"];"+tense-0jau08yx7y7t"--"+front-0jau08yx7y7w";"/ø/-0jau08yx7y80"[label="/ø/"];"+front-0jau08yx7y7w"--"/ø/-0jau08yx7y80";"-front-0jau08yx7y87"[label="-front"];"+tense-0jau08yx7y7t"--"-front-0jau08yx7y87";"/o/-0jau08yx7y8a"[label="/o/"];"-front-0jau08yx7y87"--"/o/-0jau08yx7y8a";"-tense-0jau08yx7y8k"[label="-tense"];"+round-0jau08yx7y7q"--"-tense-0jau08yx7y8k";"+low-0jau08yx7y8o"[label="+low"];"-tense-0jau08yx7y8k"--"+low-0jau08yx7y8o";"/œ/-0jau08yx7y8s"[label="/œ/"];"+low-0jau08yx7y8o"--"/œ/-0jau08yx7y8s";"-low-0jau08yx7y8y"[label="-low"];"-tense-0jau08yx7y8k"--"-low-0jau08yx7y8y";"/ɔ/-0jau08yx7y90"[label="/ɔ/"];"-low-0jau08yx7y8y"--"/ɔ/-0jau08yx7y90";"-round-0jau08yx7y9m"[label="-round"];"-high-0jau08yx7y7m"--"-round-0jau08yx7y9m";"+tense-0jau08yx7y9p"[label="+tense"];"-round-0jau08yx7y9m"--"+tense-0jau08yx7y9p";"+low-0jau08yx7y9s"[label="+low"];"+tense-0jau08yx7y9p"--"+low-0jau08yx7y9s";"/æ/-0jau08yx7y9v"[label="/æ/"];"+low-0jau08yx7y9s"--"/æ/-0jau08yx7y9v";"-low-0jau08yx7ya1"[label="-low"];"+tense-0jau08yx7y9p"--"-low-0jau08yx7ya1";"/e/-0jau08yx7yaa"[label="/e/"];"-low-0jau08yx7ya1"--"/e/-0jau08yx7yaa";"-tense-0jau08yx7yal"[label="-tense"];"-round-0jau08yx7y9m"--"-tense-0jau08yx7yal";"+low-0jau08yx7yao"[label="+low"];"-tense-0jau08yx7yal"--"+low-0jau08yx7yao";"/a/-0jau08yx7yar"[label="/a/"];"+low-0jau08yx7yao"--"/a/-0jau08yx7yar";"-low-0jau08yx7yaw"[label="-low"];"-tense-0jau08yx7yal"--"-low-0jau08yx7yaw";"/ɛ/-0jau08yx7yaz"[label="/ɛ/"];"-low-0jau08yx7yaw"--"/ɛ/-0jau08yx7yaz";} +#+end_src + +#+name: tree:vowels +#+attr_html: :alt Eittlandic Vowel Featural Tree :class gentree :loading lazy +#+caption: Eittlandic Vowels Featural Tree +#+RESULTS[93d18c3e267627e50cf901dcc820c34aaab89eab]: +[[file:img/eittland/vowel-feature-tree.png]] + +**** Private Data :noexport: +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Vowels-Private-Data-jt8bq9m0eaj0 +:END: +#+name: vowels-featural-list +- vowels + - +high + - +round + - +front + - /y/ + - -front + - /u/ + - -round + - /i/ + - -high + - +round + - +tense + - +front + - /ø/ + - -front + - /o/ + - -tense + - +low + - /œ/ + - -low + - /ɔ/ + - -round + - +tense + - +low + - /æ/ + - -low + - /e/ + - -tense + - +low + - /a/ + - -low + - /ɛ/ + +*** Consonants +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Consonants-xethtyt058j0 +:END: + +**** Private Data :noexport: +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Consonants-Private-Data-sfcbpfm0eaj0 +:END: + +*** Pitch and Stress +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Pitch-and-Stress-br8ank61e8j0 +:END: + +** Phonotactics +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Phonotactics-r2whtyt058j0 +:END: +*** Syllable Structur +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonotactics-Syllable-Structure-hhx3zk40f8j0 +:END: + +*** Allophony +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonotactics-Allophony-x185lum0jaj0 +:END: + +** Word Structure +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Word-Structure-n6vhtyt058j0 +:END: + +** World Classes :noexport: +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-aywhtyt058j0 +:END: +*** Names +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Names-ztxhtyt058j0 +:END: +# - What are the distributional properties of nouns? +# - What are the structural properties of nouns? +# - What are the major formally distinct subcategories of nouns? +# - What is the basic structure of the noun word (for polysynthetic +# languages) and/or noun phrases (for more isolating languages)? +**** Countables and Uncountables +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Names-Countables-and-Uncountables-sqyhtyt058j0 +:END: +**** Proper Nouns +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Names-Proper-Nouns-0ozhtyt058j0 +:END: +*** Pronouns and Anaphoric Clitics +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Pronouns-and-Anaphoric-Clitics-9k0ityt058j0 +:END: +# - Does the language have free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics? +# (These are distinct from grammatical agreement.) +# - Give a chart of the free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics. +**** Personal Pronouns +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Pronouns-and-Anaphoric-Clitics-Personal-Pronouns-cps4r0u058j0 +:END: +**** Demonstrative Pronouns +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Pronouns-and-Anaphoric-Clitics-Demonstrative-Pronouns-2qt4r0u058j0 +:END: +**** Possessive Pronouns +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Pronouns-and-Anaphoric-Clitics-Possessive-Pronouns-2pu4r0u058j0 +:END: +*** Verbs +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-xg1ityt058j0 +:END: +# - What are the distributional properties of verbs? +# - What are the structural properties of verbs? +# - What are the major subclasses of verbs? +# - Describe the order of various verbal operators within the verbal +# - word or verb phrase. +# - Give charts of th +# - tense/aspect/mode, etc. Indicate major allomorphic variants. +# - Are directional and/or locational notions expressed in the verb or +# - verb phrase at all? +# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the +# paradigm have to occur in every finite verb or verb phrase? +# - Is it productiv +# verb stems, and does it have the same meaning with each one? +# (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more +# productive than others.) +# - Is this operation primarily coded morphologically, analytically, +# or lexically? Are there any exceptions to the general case? +# - Where in the verb phrase or verbal word is this operation likely +# to appear? Can it occur in more than one place? +**** Verbal Structure +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Verbs-Verbal-Structure-zfubf8u058j0 +:END: +**** Verbal Derivations +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Verbs-Verbal-Derivations-tezbf8u058j0 +:END: +**** Verbal Inflexions +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Verbs-Verbal-Inflexions-443cf8u058j0 +:END: +*** Modifiers +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-yw5cf8u058j0 +:END: +# - If you posit a morphosyntactic category of adjectives, give +# evidence for not grouping theseforms with the verbs or nouns. What +# characterizes a form as being an adjective in this language? +# - How can you characterize semantically the class of concepts coded +# by this formal category? +# - Do adjectives agr +# noun class)? +# - What kind of syst +# - How high can a fluent native speaker count without resorting +# either to words from another language or to a generic word like +# /many/? Exemplify the system up to this point. +# - Do numerals agree with their head nouns (number, case, noun +# class, ...)? +**** Descriptive Adjectives +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Descriptive-Adjectives-pcpelau058j0 +:END: +**** Non-Numeral Quantifiers +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Non-Numeral-Quantifiers-zsselau058j0 +:END: +**** Numerals +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Numerals-4gvelau058j0 +:END: +*** Adverbs +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Adverbs-6lxelau058j0 +:END: +# - What characterikes a form as being an adverb in this language? If +# you posit a distinct class of adverbs, argue for why these forms +# should not be treated as nouns, verbs, or adjectives. +# - For each kind of adverb listed in this section, list a few members +# of the type, and specify whether there are any restrictions +# relavite to that type, e.g. where they can come in a clause, any +# morphemes common to the type, etc. +# - Are any of these classes of adverbs related to older +# complement-taking (matrix) verbs? +*** Adpositions +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Adpositions-isib3bu058j0 +:END: +*** Grammatical Particules +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Grammatical-Particules-q0kb3bu058j0 +:END: +** Constituants Order Typology :noexport: +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-xaujqgu058j0 +:END: +*** Constituants Order in Main Clauses +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-Constituants-Order-in-Main-Clauses-6bvjqgu058j0 +:END: +# - What is the neutral order of free elements in the unit? +# - Are there variations? +# - How do the variant orders function? +# - Specific to the main clause constituent order: What is the +# pragmatically neutral order of constituents (A/S, P, and V) in +# basic clauses of the language? +*** Constituants Order in Nominal Clauses +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-Constituants-Order-in-Nominal-Clauses-195lqgu058j0 +:END: +# - Describe the order(s) of elements in the noun phrase. +*** Constituants Order in Verbal Clauses +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-Constituants-Order-in-Verbal-Clauses-f76lqgu058j0 +:END: +# - Where do auxliari +# verb? +# - Where do verb-phrase adverbs occur with respect to the verb and +# auxiliaries? +*** Adpositional Phrases +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-Adpositional-Phrases-g57lqgu058j0 +:END: +# - Is the language dominantly prepositional or post-positional? Give +# examples. +# - Do many adpositions come from nouns or verbs? +*** Comparatives +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-Comparatives-u18lqgu058j0 +:END: +# - Does the language have one or more grammaticalized comparative +# constructions? If so, what is the order of the standard, the +# marker and the quality by which an item is compared to the +# standard? +*** Questions +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-Questions-qx8lqgu058j0 +:END: +# - In yes/no questions, if there is a question particle, where does +# it occur? +# - In information qu +** Structure of a Nominal Group :noexport: +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-nu66umu058j0 +:END: +*** Composed Words +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Composed-Words-7w76umu058j0 +:END: +# - Is there noun-noun compounding that results in a noun (e.g. +# /windshield/)? +# - How do you know it is compounding? +# - Is there noun-verb (or verb-noun) compounding that results in a +# noun (e.g. /pickpocket/, /scarecrow/)? +# - Are these process +# can-opener)? How common is compounding? +*** Denominalization +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Denominalization-c296umu058j0 +:END: +# - Are there any processes (productive or not) that form a verb from +# a noun? +# - An adjective from a noun? +# - An adverb from a noun? +*** Numbers +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Numbers-n0a6umu058j0 +:END: +# - Is number express +# - Is the distinction between singular and non-singular obligatory, +# optional, or completely absent in the noun phrase? +# - If number marking is “optional”, when does it tend to occur, and +# when does it tend not to occur? +# - If number marking is obligatory, is number overtly expressed for +# all noun phrases or only some subclasses of noun phrases, such as +# animate? +# - What non-singular distinctions are there? +*** Grammatical Case +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Grammatical-Case-bya6umu058j0 +:END: +# - Do nouns exhibit morphological case? +# - If so, what are the cases? (The functions of the cases will be +# elaborated in lat +*** Articles and Demonstratives +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Articles-and-Demonstratives-owb6umu058j0 +:END: +# - Do noun phrases have articles? +# - If so, are they obligatory or optional, and under what +# circumstances do they occur? +# - Are they separate words, or bound morphemes? +# - Is there a class of classes of demonstratives as distinct from +# articles? +# - How many degrees of distance are there in the system of +# demontsratives? +# - Are there other distinctions beside distances? +*** Possessives +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Possessives-8xc6umu058j0 +:END: +# - How are possessors expressed in the noun phrase? +# - Do nouns agree with their possessors? Do possessors agree with +# possessed nouns? Neither, or both? +# - Is there a distinction between alienable and inalienable +# possesson? +# - Are there other types of possession? +# - When the possessor is a full noun, where does it usually come with +# respect to the possessed noun? +*** Classes (including Gender) +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Classes-including-Gender-i2e6umu058j0 +:END: +# - Is there a noun class system? +# - What are the classes and how are they manifested in the noun +# phrase? +# - What dimension of reality is most central to the noun class system +# (e.g. animacy, shape, function, etc.)? What other dimensions are +# relevant? +# - Do the classifiers occur with numerals? Adjectives? Verbs? +# - What is their function in these contexts? +*** Diminution/Augmentation +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Diminution-Augmentation-41f6umu058j0 +:END: +# - Does the language employ diminutive and/or augmentative operators +# in the noun or noun phrase? +# - Questions to answ +# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the +# paradigm have to occur in every full noun phrase? +# - Is it productiv +# full noun phras +# one? (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more +# so than others.) +# - Is this operation primarily expressed lexically, +# morphologically, or analytically? +# - Where in the noun phrase is this operation likely to be located? +# - Can it occur in more than one place? +** Predicates and Linked Constructions :noexport: +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Predicates-and-Linked-Constructions-9vn42yu058j0 +:END: +*** Nominal Predicates +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Predicates-and-Linked-Constructions-Nominal-Predicates-6zo42yu058j0 +:END: +# - How are proper inclusion and equative predicates formed? +# - What restrictions are there, if any, on the TAM marking of such +# clauses? +*** Adjective Predicates +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Predicates-and-Linked-Constructions-Adjective-Predicates-11q42yu058j0 +:END: +# - How are predicate adjective formed? (Include a separate section on +# predicate adjectives only if they are structurally distinct from +# predicate nominals.) +*** Locative Predicat +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Predicates-and-Linked-Constructions-Locative-Predicates-y5r42yu058j0 +:END: +# - How are locational clauses (or predicate locatives) formed? +*** Existential Predicates +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Predicates-and-Linked-Constructions-Existential-Predicates-wds42yu058j0 +:END: +# - How are existential clauses formed? (Give examples in different +# tense/aspects, especially if there is significant variation.) +# - How are negative +# - Are there extended uses of existential morphology? (Provide +# pointers to other relevant sections of the grammar.) +*** Possessive Clauses +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Predicates-and-Linked-Constructions-Possessive-Clauses-6gt42yu058j0 +:END: +# - How are possessiv +** Verbal Groups Structure :noexport: +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Verbal-Groups-Structure-hhu42yu058j0 +:END: +** Intransitive Claus +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Intransitive-Clauses-x3k4i1v058j0 +:END: +** Ditransitive Claus +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Ditransitive-Clauses-2yl4i1v058j0 +:END: +** Dependent Type Clauses :noexport: +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Dependent-Type-Clauses-gln4i1v058j0 +:END: +*** Non-Finite +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Dependent-Type-Clauses-Non-Finite-99p4i1v058j0 +:END: +*** Semi-Finite +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Dependent-Type-Clauses-Semi-Finite-urq4i1v058j0 +:END: +*** Finite +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Dependent-Type-Clauses-Finite-44s4i1v058j0 +:END: +* Functional System :noexport: +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-va2ityt058j0 +:END: +** Grammatical Relationship +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Grammatical-Relationship-dj9g86v058j0 +:END: +# Examplify some simple intransitive, transitive, and ditransitive +# clauses. Three-argument clauses may not unequivocally exist. +# - What are the grammatical erlations of this language? Give +# morphosyntactic evidence for each one that you propose. +# - Subject? +# - Ergative? +# - Absolutive? +# - Direct object? +# - Indirect object? +# There are basically four possible sources of evidence for +# grammatical relations: +# - morphological case on NPs +# - person marking on verbs +# - constituent ord +# - some pragmatic hierarchy +# - Is the system of grammatical relations in basic (affirmative, +# declarative) clauses organized according to a +# nominative/accusative, ergative/absolutive, tripartite, or some +# other system? +# - Is there a split system for organizing grammatical relations? If +# so, what determin +# - Is there split instransitivity? If so, what semantic or +# discourse/pragmatic factor conditions the split? +# - Does the system for pronouns and/or person marking on verbs +# operate on the same basis as that of full NPs? +# - Are there different grammatical-relation systems depending on +# the clause type (e.g. main vs. dependent clauses, affirmative +# vs. negative clauses)? +# - Are there different grammatical-relation assignment systems +# depending on th +# - Are there any syntactic processes (e.g. conjunction reduction, +# relativization) that operate on an ergative/absolutive basis? +** Constructions Link +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Constructions-Linked-to-Voice-and-Valence-g5ceo8v058j0 +:END: +** Valence Increase +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Valence-Increase-dsdeo8v058j0 +:END: +*** Causative +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Valence-Increase-Causative-hafeo8v058j0 +:END: +*** Applicative +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Valence-Increase-Applicative-7pgeo8v058j0 +:END: +*** Dative Shift +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Valence-Increase-Dative-Shift-n3ieo8v058j0 +:END: +*** Dative Interest +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Valence-Increase-Dative-Interest-tgjeo8v058j0 +:END: +*** External Possession +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Valence-Increase-External-Possession-opkeo8v058j0 +:END: +* Dictionary +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-y2icocp0h5j0 +:END: +** A +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-A-wtcczzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** Á +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Á-4kfczzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** Æ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Æ-2diczzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** B +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-B-ae79d268 +:END: + +** C +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-C-29dc766b +:END: + +** D +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-D-h7lczzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** Đ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Đ-jpnczzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** E +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-E-54360434 +:END: + +** É +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-É-aeqczzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** F +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-F-r4tczzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** G +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-G-5a9af03c +:END: + +** H +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-H-5qvczzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** I +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-I-a81a4697 +:END: + +** Í +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Í-s9yczzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** J +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-J-88f57f6a +:END: + +** K +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-K-bl1dzzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** L +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-L-j64dzzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** M +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-M-cccfd958 +:END: + +** N +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-N-0ef6f2af +:END: + +** O +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-O-cf8f0e3f +:END: + +** Ó +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Ó-y77dzzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** Ǫ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Ǫ-xv9dzzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** Ø +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-8fcb6e1e +:END: + +** Œ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-Œ-0c780f53 +:END: + +** P +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-P-2b7ab301 +:END: + +** Q +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-Q-b1ec8323 +:END: + +** R +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-R-fmcdzzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** S +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-S-e9e187ae +:END: + +** T +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-T-phfdzzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** Þ +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Þ-t6idzzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** U +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-U-fa109e34 +:END: + +** Ú +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-Ú-c35e6434 +:END: + +** V +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-V-urkdzzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** Y +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-Y-a217cb68 +:END: + +** Ý +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Ý-iendzzm0jaj0 +:END: + +** Z +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-Z-144a2853 +:END: + +* Private Data :noexport: +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Private-Data-q4hgd1d0uaj0 +:END: +#+name: eittland-religions +| / | < | | | | | | +| Year | Norse Faith | Atheism | Church of Eittland | Christianity | Buddhism | Other | +|------+-------------+---------+--------------------+--------------+----------+-------| +| 1900 | 97 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | +| 1950 | 93 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | +| 1975 | 84 | 7 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 5 | +| 2000 | 75 | 9 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | +| 2019 | 68 | 15 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 3 | + +* Footnotes +:PROPERTIES: +:CUSTOM_ID: Footnotes-uybi3030e5j0 +:END: + +[fn:3] [[https://phundrak.com][phundrak.com]] + +[fn:2] [[https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/][creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/]] + +[fn:1] [[https://langue.phundrak.com][langue.phundrak.com]] diff --git a/content/en/img/eittland b/content/en/img/eittland new file mode 120000 index 0000000..5736079 --- /dev/null +++ b/content/en/img/eittland @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../../img/eittland \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/content/img/eittland/religions.png b/content/img/eittland/religions.png new file mode 100644 index 0000000..22cea01 Binary files /dev/null and b/content/img/eittland/religions.png differ