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[En, Eittlandic] Add English version of Eittlandic document
2021-12-25 21:06:50 +01:00
#+title: Eittland
#+subtitle: A Linguistic Overview of the Land of the Last Nordic Pagans
#+setupfile: ../headers
#+language: en
#+html_head: <meta name="description" content="A Linguistic Overview of Eittland" />
#+html_head: <meta property="og:title" content="Eittland" />
#+html_head: <meta property="og:description" content="A Linguistic Overview of the Eittlandic Kingdom" />
#+subject: Eittland and its languages
#+uid: https://langue.phundrak.com/en/eittlandic
#+options: auto-id:t
#+latex_header: \usepackage{allrunes}
#+macro: rune (eval (conlanging-to-org-runes $1 'eittlandic))
#+latex_header: \linespread{1.15}
#+latex_header: \usepackage{glossaries}
#+latex_header: \makeglossaries
#+latex: \printglossaries
* Foreword
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Introduction-Foreword-d22hjv20e5j0
:UNNUMBERED: t
:END:
Redistribution or sale of this document is strictly prohibited. This
document is protected by French law on copyright and is completely
owned by its author[fn:3] (myself, Lucien “Phundrak” Cartier-Tilet).
This document is released for free in various formats on the author’s
website[fn:1], the language is released under the CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
licence[fn:2].
If you got this document by any other mean than a website on the
~.phundrak.com~ domain, please report it as soon as possible. There is
currently no agreement with the author to redistribute it by any mean
possible. If you wish to redistribute it, please contact the author.
This document is about a constructed language (conlang) I created. It
will be written as an in-universe document, in an alternate history
where the Eittlandic Kingdom actually exists in our world, with its
history intertwined with ours. Any vague part about any linguistical
or cultural aspect is most likely due to a lack of worldbuilding, so
if you read something along the lines of “more research needs to be
done on the subject” simply means I have not yet written on it (or I
may not plan to).
This is a work of fiction. Any resemblance to persons living or dead,
to any real event, or any real people is purely coincidental.
* Eittland
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-iz98ngl0jaj0
:END:
Eittland (Eittlandic: Eittland {{{rune(eittland)}}} {{{phon(aɪtlãd)}}}) is part of
the family of Nordic countries, with a population of 31.5 millions as
per the 2019 national census. It has a superficy of 121 km^{2}, making it
the second largest island in Europe after Great Britain. Its capital
Đeberget is the largest eittlandic city with a population of 1.641.600
in 2019. The island is naturally separated in two, its western and
eastern sides, by a chain of volcanoes spawning on the separation of
the North American and the Eurasian plates, much like its northern
sister Iceland. Thus, its Eastern side covers 49km^{2} of the island and
hosts 11.3 million inhabitants while the western side covers 72km^{2}
with a population of 20.1 millions.
** Geography
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Geography-gox58hn0jaj0
:END:
Eittland is an active volcanic island. In its center we can find the
most active volcanoes, surrounded by glaciers and some regular
mountains. It is surrounded by some taiga, taiga plains covered mainly
by ashen pines (/pinus fraxinus/), and a large cold desert covering most
of the center of the island and its northern eastern part. Outside of
this largely unpopulated region, Eastern Eittland mainly consists of
grasslands with some temperate rainforests on its southern shores as
well as some occasional wetland and marshes. On the other hand,
Western Eittland has a lot more temperate deciduos forests, temperate
rainforests and some more wetlands and marshes still. Three small cold
deserts spawn in Western Eittland, including one north east of
Đeberget not far from the city. More details can be found in the map
[[img:map-biomes]]. Overall, the southern and western parts of Eittland
can be compared to Scotland in terms of temperatures, or a warmer
Iceland.
#+CAPTION: Biomes of the Eittlandic Island
#+attr_html: :loading lazy
#+attr_latex: :float sideways
#+NAME: img:map-biomes
[[file:img/eittland/map-biomes.png]]
Eastern Eittland is also recognizable by its great amount of flat
shorelines, especially in its northern and eastern parts which are part
of the more recent paths of lava flows. On the other hand, its few
fjords and the numerous fjords found in the western part of the island
are characteristic of much older parts of Eittland. The Fjord
themselves were formed during the last ice age, while the smoother
shore lines formed since. Western Eittland also has two main bays
which are two very old caldeira volcanoes. It is not known whether
they will be one day active again or not.
** Culture
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Culture-q6uf2gs0uaj0
:END:
The Eittlandic people share a common basis for their culture which
remained rather conservative for much longer than the other nordic
people due to its resistance towards Christianity conversion. The
number of people adhering to Norse beliefs remained very high through
the ages and only recently began declining, going from 93% of
Eittlanders declaring themselves follower of the Norse Faith in 1950
to 68% in 2019. This decline is also due to either people converting
to a religion or due to the immigration boom from the last seventy
years, though the main reason is the decline in people identifying to
any faith at all --- the number of atheists went from only 2% of
Eittlanders in 1940 to 15% in 2019. The evolution of the religious
population is shown in the chart [[chart:religions]], and a geographical
distribution of these in 2019 can be found in the map [[map:religion]] ---
note that only the main religion is shown in a particular area and
religions with less people in said area are not shown. You can also
see on said map the population repartition of Eittland.
#+headers: :cache yes :exports results
#+begin_src gnuplot :file img/eittland/religions.png :var data=eittland-religions
set title "Religions in Eittland since 1950"
set key invert reverse Left outside
set yrange [0:100]
set grid y
set ylabel "Percentage"
set border 3
set style data histograms
set style histogram rowstacked
set style fill solid border -1
set boxwidth 1
plot data u 2:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 lw 3 title 'Norse Faith', \
data u 3:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 lw 3 title 'Atheism', \
data u 4:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 lw 3 title 'Church of Eittland', \
data u 5:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 lw 3 title 'Christianity', \
data u 6:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 lw 3 title 'Buddhism', \
data u 7:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 lw 3 title 'Other'
#+end_src
#+name: chart:religions
#+caption: Religious Evolution of Eittland Since 1900
#+attr_html: :loading lazy
#+RESULTS[3b10b0ef95c6a0d04471ef81330c2b0c065c9344]:
[[file:img/eittland/religions.png]]
#+attr_html: :loading lazy
#+attr_latex: :float sideways
#+name: map:religion
#+caption: Religious population of Eittland
[[file:./img/eittland/map-religion.png]]
There is also a regional cultural difference between Western, Eastern,
and Southern Eittland marked with some differences in traditions and
language. There is currently a nationalist movement in Southern
Eittland so a new state is created within the Kingdom of Eittland. The
repartition of the different eittlandic cultures is shown in the map
[[map:culture]].
#+name: map:culture
#+caption: Cultural Map of Eittland
#+attr_html: :loading lazy
#+attr_latex: :float sideways
[[file:./img/eittland/map-cultural.png]]
** Name of the Country
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Name-of-the-Country-hun23je06bj0
:END:
The root of the name of “Eittland” is the accusative of /einn/ (Old
Norse /one/, /alone/) and /land/ (Old Norse /country/, /land/. This is due to
how remote it seemed to the people who discovered, before Iceland and
Greenland were known. Hence, a possible translation of “Eittland” can
be /Lonely Land/. The term “Eittlandic” is relatively transparent
considering the term “Icelandic” for “Iceland” and “Greenlandic” for
“Greenland”.
** History
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-History-9n168hn0jaj0
:END:
According to historical records, Eittland was first found in 763 by
Norwegian explorers. Its first settlement appeared in 782 on its
eastern shores with hopes of finding new farmland. The population grew
rapidly after the discovery of the southern shores, and in 915
Eittland became self-governing with Ásmundr Úlfsonn declared the first
Eittlandic king. However, in order to avoid any unnecessary conflicts,
the new king swore allegiance to the Norwegian king Harald I
Halfdansson. Eittland thus became a vassal state to the Norwegian
crown while retaining autonomy from it, which was granted due to the
distance between the two countries.
Shortly after however, the beginning of the christianisation of the
nordic countries and especially of Norway created a new immigration
boost in Eittland with norsemen seeking a pagan land untouched by
christian faith. In 935, a year after Haakon I Haraldsson became king
of Norway and began trying to introduce Christianity to its people,
the newly crowned king Áleifr I Ásmundson of Eittland adopted a new
law forbidding the Christian faith to be imported, promoted, and
practiced in Eittland. This decision forever weakened the alliance
between the two countries.
As more and more people in Eittland were moving to its western part
due to larger opportunities with its farmlands, king Áleifr I chose in
936 to move the capital of Eittland from Hylfjaltr to Đeberget and
split in half the country. He appointed his brother Steingrímr, later
known as Steingrímr I Áleifsbróðr, as his co-ruler and gave him
authority over Eastern Eittland while he kept ruling himself over
Western Eittland. This choice is due to the difficulty of going from
one side of the island to the other by land --- lava flows often
forcefully close and destroy paths joining the two parts together.
This gave birth to the two states of the Kingdom of Đeberget (also
called the /Western Eittlandic Kingdom/) and the Kingdom of Hylfjaltr
(also called the /Eastern Eittlandic Kingdom/). More on that can
** Political Organization
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Political-Organization-z5v4e9p0jaj0
:END:
*** Kingdoms and Monarchy
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Political-Organization-Political-subdivisions-z32drvy0jaj0
:END:
While Eittland is a single country, it is host to two kingdoms: the
Kingdom of Đeberget in the western part of the country, and the
Kingdom of Hylfjaltr in its eastern part. This is due to a separation
of the country in two halves during the reign of Eittlands second king
Áleifr I when he realized the difficulties he and the following
monarchs of the island would face trying to rule the country alone
while the latter is almost always split in two by active volcanoes.
Thus, while the two kingdoms operate very independently from each
other --- each have their own policies on economics, education,
industry, and so on --- they also operate in cooperation as the
Eittlandic High Kingdom with the king of Đeberget at its head when it
comes to common policies, such as military decision and internrational
affairs.
#+attr_html: :loading lazy
#+attr_latex: :float sideways
#+CAPTION: The Two Eittlandic States
#+NAME: img:map-political
[[file:./img/eittland/map-political.png]]
This means that while both governments are independent from each other
and are legally equals to each other, the western monarch is the one
with the authority to decide on national actions after negotiations
between them and the eastern monarch. This is reflected by the throne
rooms found in official buildings such as the royal palaces where
three thrones can be found: a central, very large throne surrounded by
two other identical thrones, the right one for the monarch of
Hylfjaltr and the left one for the king of Đeberget. Most of the time,
both monarchs sit on their side throne, including when they meet each
other as the monarchs of Hylfjaltr and Đeberget. However, when the
monarch of Đeberget is meant to act as the High Monarch of Eittland,
they step up to the central throne and then represent the country as a
whole.
At the end of the reign of the High King, either through abdication or
their death, his successor is enthroned within a month. Then, within a
year, the new High King has to appoint a new monarch for Hylfjaltr.
Traditionally, the new co-ruler is a brother of the current High
Monarch, however history showed it could be sometimes an uncle, a son,
a sister or even sometimes a daughter. When the eastern monarch either
abdicates or dies, the High Monarch has a month to designate a new
one.
Up until the 14th century, the monarch of Hylfjaltr was rarely the
successor of the High Monarch. However, High King Ólafr I changed this
tradition and created a new one. He named his brother and co-ruler
King of Eittland and his son Prince of Eittland. From here on, the
King (or occasionally the Queen) of Eastern Eittland was meant to
become the new High Monarch of Eittland and make the Prince (or
occasional Princess) the ruler of Hylfjaltr. Then, once the reign of
the King ends, the Prince becomes the new High King and nominates a
new King and a new Prince. This was done to ensure the upcoming High
Monarch would be prepared in ruling the whole country by first ruling
the state. If anything were to happen to the Prince or Princess of
Eittland while the King or Queen of Hylfjaltr is on the throne, they
would have to nominate a new heir among the other possible heirs
possible for the late High Monarch.
When the High Monarchs steps up to the central throne, they may
designate someone to fill in the role of the monarch of Đeberget for
the time being. They can also authorize the monarch of Hylfjaltr to do
so in case they are unavailable and someone need to represent the
country in front of foreign representatives. The last example was
during the two last years of Eríkr IX’s reign from 1987 to 1989 when
he could not act as High King due to his illness. While he did not
abdicate, he authorized king Harald III to act as High King while he
appointed his daughter and present-day High Queen Njall III as the
acting monarch of Đeberget.
*** Regions and Jarldoms
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Political-Organization-Regions-and-Jarldoms-vxsav301jaj0
:END:
While each kingdom is ruled by a monarch and the country is ruled by
the High Monarch, the kingdoms are divided into several kinds of
subdivisions. The most common one is the jarldom, historically ruled
by and still represented by a jarl during ceremonies. “Jarl”
translates as “Earl” in English, and they were the nobles in charge of
managing parts of the land in the name of the ruler.
#+attr_html: :loading lazy
#+attr_latex: :float sideways
#+CAPTION: Eittlandic Provinces
#+NAME: img:map-provinces
[[file:./img/eittland/map-provinces.png]]
Some parts of the land are directly under the control of the crown,
such as the districts of Đeberget and Hylfjaltr, which the ruler ruled
without intermediaries. They are the private possessions of the family
of the rulers.
On top of this the center of the island is divided in territories, one
administered by the government of Đeberget and two by the government
of Hylfjaltr. These territories are supposedly not inhabited by anyone
and are currently natural parks. This is mostly where you can find the
mountains and volcanoes of Eittland as well as its cold deserts.
Due to the Last Royal Decree of 1826, jarls no longer rule their
jarldom themselves anymore. Instead, a local elected government takes
care of this role now.
*** Governments
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Political-Organization-Government-zoeav301jaj0
:END:
**** Monarchy and Things
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Political-Organization-Governments-Monarchy-and-Things-f4i3ii11jaj0
:END:
The first form of government created in Eittland revolved around
Things, assemblies of various size occasionally created at various
levels of the state to decide on important matters. The Things allow
at first any adult man to participate, but as the population grew some
restrictions were put in place in order to limit the amount of
participants. Only one man could represent a household starting
from 982. Then, starting from 998, only jarls were allowed to the
ruler’s Thing, and only ten jarls from each kingdom, elected among all
the jarls from the same kingdom, would be allowed to attend the High
Monarch’s Thing. These jarls would then act as representatives of the
kingdom to the High King and his counsellors.
In 1278, the first formal ministry (or department) was created in the
Ðeberget Kingdom, called a /Ráðuneyt/ (litt. “fellowship of
counsellors”) with a /Ráðunautr/ at its head, to aid the King Hallþórr V
Gunhildson’s in administering agriculture. The Hylfjaltr Kingdom soon
followed, creating its own in 1283 by order of Eyvindor III
Steingrímson. From then, ráðuneyts were created as needed with a
growing number.
**** Constitutional Monarchy
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Eittland-Political-Organization-Governments-Constitutional-Monarchy-k7y3ii11jaj0
:END:
In 1826, fearing the revolutionary climate in mainland Europe, Ólafr V
passed the appropriately named “Last Royal Decree” in 1826. This act
put in place a new form of government based on the British monarchy.
All the royal power from the rulers of Đeberget and Hylfjaltr is
transferred to the House of the People and the House of the Land (the
equivalent of the lower and upper Houses respectively). The House of
the People was composed of men elected during general elections every
eight years. It was decided for each jarldom and district, one
representative would be elected plus another one for each percentage
of the population of the kingdom the jarldom represents.
A similar system was created for jarldoms in order to replace jarls
with locally elected governments, as well as the organisation of
municipalities.
At first only male land owner of the Nordic Faith could vote and could
be elected. In 1886, all men of the Nordic Faith got the right to vote
and be elected in the general elections. In 1902, women gained the
right to vote and they gained the right to be elected in 1915. The law
that allowed women to vote also made the authorities stop enforcing
the restriction on the faith of the participants --- while the
original texts of 1826 and 1886 were clear on the fact only men of the
Nordic Faith were allowed to vote and be elected, no such restrictions
were made for women, making it unclear if only women had no faith
restriction or if this restriction was removed for everyone.
Organizers of the next elections in 1914 chose not to enforce this
religious restriction and it stopped being enforced since then. In
1998, Queen Siv I exceptionally used her powers of High Queen to pass a
law to clarify this issue and formally make Eittland a non-religious
country. This also removed the long unenforced ban on other religions
in Eittland.
It is to be noted that while the rulers of Đeberget and Hylfjaltr have
lost all their power with the “Last Royal Decree”, the High Monarch
remained unaffected by the text though they act as if it were the
case. To replace them, the eastern and western governments elect a
single national representative meant to act as the head of both states
instead of the High Monarch who now holds only a ceremonial position.
However, it happens from time to time the High Monarch passes a law,
although they only write down in the law already well established
traditions, such as the ban on the religious restrictions for voters
which had not been enforced for almost a century by that point.
Today, Ráðuneyts still exist, but their head is designated no longer
by the monarch but by the House of the People. Here is the list of
Ministries that currently exist in Eittland:
- /Bærráðuneyt/ :: Agriculture Ministry
- Dæmaráðuneyt :: Justice Ministry
- Erlendslandsráðuneyt :: Foreign Affair Ministry
- Fræðiráðuneyt :: Education Ministry
- Heilsráðuneyt :: Health Ministry
- Konungdómráðuneyt :: Kingdom Ministry (State Affairs)
- Náttúrráðuneyt :: Nature Ministry (including ecology)
- Rógráðuneyt :: War Ministry
- Teknikráðuneyt :: Technology Ministry
- Kaupráðuneyt :: Economy Ministry
- Vinnaráðuneyt :: Employment Ministry
With the separation of the State with its religious departments
following the law of 1998, the Heiðniráðuneyt (the Heathendom
Department) became an entity separate from the Government. Its
Ráðunautr used to be exceptionally appointed by the House of the Land,
unlike the rest of Ráðunautrs.
* Structural Overview
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-ax13bot058j0
:END:
** Typological Outline of the Eittlandic Language :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Typological-Outline-of-the-Eittlandic-Language-osk84ty0jaj0
:END:
# - Is the language dominantly isolating or polysynthetic?
# - If the language is at all polysynthetic, is it dominantly
# agglutinative or fusional? Give examples of its dominant pattern
# and any secondary patterns.
# - If the language is at all agglutinative, is it dominantly
# prefixing, suffixing or neither?
# - Illustrate the major and secondary patterns (including infixation,
# stem modification, reduplication, suprasegmental modification, and
# suppletion).
# - If the language is at all polysynthetic, is it dominantly
# "head-marking", "dependent-marking", or mixed?
# - Give some examples of each type of marking the language exhibits.
** Phonetic Inventory and Translitteration
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-1hrhtyt058j0
:END:
*** Evolution from Early Old Norse to Eittlandic
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-1m6a2h60uaj0
:END:
Eittlandic evolved early on from Early Old Norse, and as such some
vowels it evolved from are different than the Old Norse vowels and
consonants some other Nordic languages evolved from. In this chapter,
we will see the main list of attested phonetic evolution Eittlandic
lived through.
The history of Eittlandic goes from the late 8th century until
modern-day Eittlandic. Its history is divided as shown on table
[[table:history-eittlandic-language]]. It is not an exact science though
as changes happened progressively through the country. Changes were
also progressive, meaning the dates chosen to go from one language to
the other are relatively arbitrary. In evolution examples, it will be
indicated whether the Eittlandic pronunciation is specific to a
certain time area (with /Early Middle Eittlandic/, /Late Old Eittlandic/,
etc…) but if it only specifies /Eittlandic/ it means no significant
changes in pronunciation occurred since the phonetic rule shown.
Meaning is also shown between parenthesis. In case of semantic shift,
its new meaning in Eittlandic is shown --- the same goes for the
word’s spelling.
#+name: table:history-eittlandic-language
| Period | Language |
|-----------------------------+-------------------|
| 8th century - 12th century | Old Eittlandic |
| 13th century - 16th century | Middle Eittlandic |
| 17th century - today | Modern Eittlandic |
It is generally considered the gj-shift of the 13th century is the
evolution that marks the change from Old Eittlandic to Middle
Eittlandic while the great vowel shift marks the change from Middle
Eittlandic to Modern Eittlandic between the 16th and the 17th century.
**** hʷ > ʍ
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-w-β-z5s6wdb0uaj0
:END:
One of the first evolution of the Eittlandic was the evolution of the
{{{phon(hʷ)}}} into a {{{phon(ʍ)}}} (written <hv>). It differs from other nordic
languages which evolved their {{{phon(hʷ)}}} into a {{{phon(v)}}}, like in
Icelandic or in Norwegian. However, this evolution is cause to debate,
mainly due to the original phoneme {{{phon(hʷ)}}} which could be inherited
from Proto-Norse instead.
+ Example :: Early Old Norse or Late Proto-Norse /hvat/ (what)
{{{phon(hʷat)}}} > Eittlandic /hvat/ (what) {{{phon(ʍat)}}}
**** C / #h_ > C[-voice]
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-C-h-voice-o4r8mvg08bj0
:END:
When preceded by a {{{phon(h)}}}, word-initial consonants such as <l>, <r>,
<n> would lose their voicing and become voiceless consonants. Note
<hj> went to {{{phon(ç)}}}.
+ Example ::
- Early Old Norse /hlóð/ (/hearth/) {{{phon(hloːð)}}} > Old Eittlandic /hlóð/
{{{phon(l̥oːð)}}}
- Early Old-Norse /hneisa/ (/shame, disgrace/) {{{phon(hneisa)}}} > Early Old
Eittlandic {{{phon(n̥eisa)}}}
- Early Old Norse /hrifs/ (/robbery/) {{{phon(hrifs)}}} > Old Norse {{{phon(r̥ifs)}}}
- Early Old Norse /hjól/ (wheel) {{{phon(hjoːl)}}} > Old Eittlandic {{{phon(çoːl)}}}
**** g / {#,V}_⁣V > ɣ
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-g-V-V-ɣ-9mlkdpi08bj0
:END:
In word-initial position and followed by a vowel or when between
vowels, Early Old Norse {{{phon(g)}}} gets palatalized into a {{{phon(ɣ)}}}.
+ Example :: Early Old Norse /gegn/ (/against, right opposite/) {{{phon(gegn̩)}}}
> Old Eittlandic {{{phon(ɣegn̩)}}}
**** V / _⁣# > ∅ ! j _
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-V-f74dgz60uaj0
:END:
When finishing a word, short unaccented vowels disappeared.
Historically, they first went through a weakening transforming them
into a {{{phon(ə)}}}, but they eventually disappeared before long vowels got
affected by the first part of the rule. However, it did not apply to
final vowels following a <j>.
+ Example :: Old Norse /heilsa/ (/health/) {{{phon(heilsa)}}} > Late Old
Eittlandic /heils/ {{{phon(heils)}}}.
Reflecting this change, the last vowel got lost in the Eittlandic
orthography. However, this rule did not get applied consistently with
a good deal of people that kept them well until the [[#Great-Vowel-Shift-7spk7j70uaj0][Great Vowel Shift]].
**** V / j_# > ə
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-V-j-ə-3v60pdk08bj0
:END:
While the final short vowel of words did not disappear when preceded
by a <j>, they still weakened to a schwa.
+ Example :: Old Norse /sitja/ (/to sit/) {{{phon(sitja)}}} > Old Eittlandic
{{{phon(sitjə)}}}
**** Vː / _# > ə
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-Vː-ə-9w7dgz60uaj0
:END:
When at the end of a word, long unaccented vowels get weakened into a
schwa.
+ Example :: Old Norse /erþó/ (as though) {{{phon(erθoː)}}} > Late Old
Eittlandic {{{phon(erθə)}}}.
Notice how in the modern orthography the <ó> didn’t get lost, unlike
with the previous rule. Unlike the schwa from the previous rule, the
current schwa still bears the long vowel feature although it is not
pronounced anymore by that point, influencing the rule described in §[[#Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-ə-C-voice-ysvblnk08bj0]].
**** ɣ / {#,V}_ > j !
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-g-V-j-133jvi70uaj0
:END:
During the 13th century, continued palatalization of the letter <g>
when beginning or preceding a vowel transformed it from {{{phon(g)}}} in
Proto-Norse to {{{phon(ɣ)}}} in Old Eittlandic to {{{phon(j)}}} in Early Modern
Eittlandic.
+ Example :: Old Norse /gauð/ (a barking) {{{phon(gauð)}}} > Early Middle
Eittlandic /gauð/ (a barking, a quarrel) {{{phon(jauð)}}}.
This is the first rule of the gj-shift along with the three next
rules, marking the passage from Old Eittlandic to Middle Eittlandic.
**** gl > gʲ
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-gl-gʲ-ys7bn4c0uaj0
:END:
The exception to the above rule is the <g> remains a hard {{{phon(g)}}} when
followed by an <l> in which case {{{phon(gl)}}} becomes {{{phon(gʲ)}}}.
+ Example :: Old Norse /óglaðr/ (sad, moody) {{{phon(oːɡlaðr̩)}}} > Early
Middle Eittlandic /óglaðr/ (very sad, miserable) {{{phon(oːɡʲaðr̩)}}}
**** d g n s t / _j > C[+palat]
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-d-g-h-n-s-t-j-C-palat-l22e89c0uaj0
:END:
Another exception to the rule in
§[[#Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-t-C-ʔ-x7lfpz90uaj0]]
is the <g> remains a hard {{{phon(g)}}} when followed by a {{{phon(j)}}}, in which
case {{{phon(gj)}}} becomes {{{phon(j)}}}. Other phonemes {{{phon(d)}}}, {{{phon(h)}}},
{{{phon(n)}}}, {{{phon(s)}}}, and {{{phon(t)}}} also get palatalized, merging with the
following {{{phon(j)}}}. In the end, we have the conversion table given by
the table [[cons:palatalization]].
#+name: cons:palatalization
| Early Old Norse | Eittlandic |
|-----------------+------------|
| {{{phon(dj)}}} | {{{phon(dʒ)}}} |
| {{{phon(gj)}}} | {{{phon(j)}}} |
| {{{phon(nj)}}} | {{{phon(ɲ)}}} |
| {{{phon(sj)}}} | {{{phon(ʃ)}}} |
| {{{phon(tj)}}} | {{{phon(tʃ)}}} |
Note this is also applicable to devoiced consonants from the rule
described in
§[[#Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-C-h-voice-o4r8mvg08bj0]].
+ Example ::
- Early Old Norse /djúpligr/ (/deep, deeply/) {{{phon(djuːpliɡr̩)}}} > Middle
Eittlandic /djúpligr/ (/deep, profound/) {{{phon(dʒuːpliɡr̩)}}}
- Early Old Norse /gjøf/ (/gift/) {{{phon(gjøf)}}} > Early Middle Eittlandic
{{{phon(jøf)}}}
- Early Old Norse /snjór/ (/snow/) {{{phon(snjoːr)}}} > Middle Eittlandic
{{{phon(sɲoːr)}}}
- Early Old Norse /hnjósa/ (/to sneeze/) {{{phon(hnjoːsa)}}} > Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ɲ̥oːs)}}}
- Early Old Norse /sjá/ (/to see/) {{{phon(sjaː)}}} > Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃaː)}}}
- Early Old Norse /skilja/ (/to understand, to distinguish/)
{{{phon(skilja)}}} > Early Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiljə)}}}
- Old Eittlandic /sitja/ (/to sit/) {{{phon(sitjə)}}} > Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(sitʃə)}}}
**** u / V_ > ʊ
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-u-V-ʊ-wqbdfb90uaj0
:END:
When following another vowel, {{{phon(u)}}} becomes an {{{phon(ʊ)}}}.
+ Example :: Old Norse /kaup/ (/bargain/) {{{phon(kaup)}}} > Early Middle
Eittlandic {{{phon(kaʊp)}}}
**** {s,z} / _C[+plos] > ʃ
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-s-z-C-plos-ʃ-ʒ-i4p0n0b0uaj0
:END:
If {{{phon(s)}}} or {{{phon(z)}}} precede a plosive consonant, they become
palatalized into a {{{phon(ʃ)}}} --- the distinction between <s> and <z> is lost.
+ Example ::
- Old Norse /fisk/ (/fish/) {{{phon(fisk)}}} > Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(fiʃk)}}}
- Early Old Norse /vizka/ (/wisdom/) {{{phon(vizka)}}} > Middle Eittlandic /visk/ {{{phon(viʃk)}}}
Note that in the Modern Eittlandic orthography, the <z> is replaced
with an <s>.
**** f / {V,C[+voice]}_ {V,C[+voice],#} > v
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-f-V-V-v-v22g0u70uaj0
:END:
When a <f> is either surrounded by voice phonemes or is preceded by a
voiced phoneme and ends a word, it gets voiced into a {{{phon(v)}}}.
+ Example :: Old Norse /úlf/ (wolf) {{{phon(uːlf)}}} > Middle Eittlandic /úlv/ {{{phon(uːlv)}}}.
**** l / _j > ʎ
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-l-j-ʎ-hapblzj08bj0
:END:
When followed by a <j>, any <l> becomes a {{{phon(ʎ)}}}, merging with the
following <j>.
+ Example :: Early Middle Eittlandic /skilja/ (to understand, to
distinguish) {{{phon(ʃkiljə)}}} > Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiʎə)}}}
**** ə[-long] / C[+voice]_# > ∅
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-ə-C-voice-ysvblnk08bj0
:END:
As described in the rule
§[[#Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-Vː-ə-9w7dgz60uaj0]],
the schwa resulting from it kept its long vowel feature although it
wasn’t pronounced anymore. This resulted in the current rule making
all schwas resulting from short vowels at the end of words to
disappear when following a voiced consonant. This basically boils down
to any former short vowel following a <j> in word-final position.
+ Example :: Middle Eittlandic (to understand, to distinguish)
{{{phon(ʃkiʎə)}}} > Late Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiʎ)}}}
**** aʊ > oː
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-aʊ-oː-4w88tmg08bj0
:END:
Sometime in the 15th century, any occurence of <au>, pronounced by
then {{{phon(aʊ)}}}, began shifting to {{{phon(oː)}}}.
+ Example :: Early Middle Eittlandic /kaup/ (/bargain/) {{{phon(/kaʊp/)}}} > Late
Middle Eittlandic /kaup/ (/commerce/) {{{koːp}}}
**** C[+long +plos -voice] > C[+fric] ! / _C > C[+long +plos] > C[-long]
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-C-long-plos-voice-C-fric-C-C-long-plos-C-long-77287t90uaj0
:END:
Unless followed by another consonant, any unvoiced long plosive
consonant becomes a short affricate while other long plosives simply
become shorter.
+ Example ::
- Old Norse /Edda/ (the book written by Snorri Sturuson) {{{phon(edːa)}}} > Late Eittlandic {{{phon(eda)}}}
- Old Norse /Eittland/ {{{phon(eitːland)}}} > Late Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(eitland)}}}
- Old Norse /uppá/ (/upon/) {{{phon(upːaː)}}} > Late Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(upɸə)}}}
**** r > ʁ (Eastern Eittlandic)
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-r-ʁ-Eastern-Eittlandic-b20i1pm0bbj0
:END:
From the beginning of the 16th century, the Eastern Eittlandic {{{phon(r)}}}
began morphing into an {{{phon(ʁ)}}} in all contexts except in word-final
<-r>, remanants of Old Norse’s nominative <-R>. This is typical in the
Eastern region of Eittland and it can be even heard in some dialects
of Southern Eittlandic.
+ Example ::
- Old Norse /dratta/ (/to trail/ or /walk like a cow/) {{{phon(dratʃ)}}} > Eastern Modern
Eittlandic /dratt/ (/act mindlessly/) {{{phon(dʁatʃ)}}}
- Early Old Norse /fjárdráttr/ (/(unfairly) making money/)
{{{phon(fjaːdraːtːr̩)}}} > Eastern Modern Eittlandic /fjárdráttr/ (/to scam/)
{{{phon(fjɛʁdʁɛtr̩)}}}
**** Great Vowel Shift
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Great-Vowel-Shift-7spk7j70uaj0
:END:
The great vowel shift happened during the 16th and 17th century during
which long vowels underwent a length loss, transforming them into
different short vowels. Only three rules governed this shift:
- V[+high +long] > V[-high -long]
- V[+tense +long] > V[-tense -long]
- V[-tense +long] > V[-long -low]
Hence, the vowels evolved as shown in table [[vow:eittland:evolution]].
#+name: vow:eittland:evolution
#+caption: Evolution of Old Norse long vowels to Eittlandic short vowels
| Orthography | Old Eittlandic vowel | Modern Eittlandic Vowel |
|-------------+----------------------+-------------------------|
| á | {{{phon(aː)}}} | {{{phon(ɛ)}}} |
| é | {{{phon(eː)}}} | {{{phon(ɛ)}}} |
| í | {{{phon(iː)}}} | {{{phon(e)}}} |
| ó | {{{phon(oː)}}} | {{{phon(ɔ)}}} |
| œ (ǿ) | {{{phon(øː)}}} | {{{phon(œ)}}} |
| ú | {{{phon(uː)}}} | {{{phon(o)}}} |
| ý | {{{phon(yː)}}} | {{{phon(ø)}}} |
As you can see, some overlap is possible from Old Norse vowels and
Modern Eittlandic vowels. For instance, Eittlanders will read <e> and
<í> both as an {{{phon(e)}}}.
+ Examples ::
- Middle Eittlandic /sjá/ (/to see/) {{{phon(ʃaː)}}} > Modern Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃɛ)}}}
- Old Norse /fé/ (/cattle/) {{{phon(feː)}}} > Modern Eittlandic /fé/ (wealth) {{{phon(fɛ)}}}
- Late Proto-Norse /hví/ (/why/) {{{phon(hʷiː)}}} > Modern Eittlandic {{{phon(ʍe)}}}
- Old Norse /bók/ (/beech/, /book/) {{{phon(boːk)}}} > Modern Eittlandic (/book/)
{{{phon(bɔk)}}}
- Early Old Norse /œgir/ (/frightener/, /terrifier/) {{{phon(øːɡir)}}} > Modern
Eittlandic /œgir/ (/barbarian/, /pirate/) {{{phon(œjir)}}}
- Middle Eittlandic /úlv/ (/wolf/) {{{phon(uːlv)}}} > Modern Eittlandic {{{phon(olv)}}}
Diphthongs also evolved following these rules:
- {{{phon(ei)}}} > {{{phon(ɑɪ)}}}
- {{{phon(ou)}}} > {{{phon(ɑʊ)}}}
- {{{phon(øy)}}} > {{{phon(œʏ)}}}
**** V / _N > Ṽ[-tense] ! V[+high] (Southern Eittlandic)
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-V-N-Ṽ-V-high-ulb1ey80uaj0
:END:
When preceding a nasal, any vowel that is not high as determined by
the figure [[tree:vowels]] gets nasalized when preceding a nasal consonant
and loses its tenseness if it has any. Hence, the pronunciation of the
<a> in /Eittland/ is {{{phon(ã)}}}. However, Old Norse /runa/ (rune) {{{phon(runa)}}}
becomes /run/ (letter, character, rune) {{{phon(run)}}} without any
nasalization.
Note this evolution is mostly proeminent in the southern regions of
Eittland and the city of Hundraðskip. It is less often documented in
Eastern Eittland and almost undocumented in Western Eittland. It is
more often documented in casual conversation buch rarer in formal
conversation, especially when the majority of the speakers in a group
are not southerners.
**** t / _C > ʔ ! _ʃ
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-t-C-ʔ-x7lfpz90uaj0
:END:
When a {{{phon(t)}}} precedes another consonant, it becomes a glottal stop.
+ Example :: Early Modern Eittlandic /Eittland/ {{{phon(ɑɪtland)}}} > Modern
Eittlandic {{{phon(ɑɪʔland)}}}
**** V^{U} > ə ! diphthongs (Western Eittlandic)
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Evolution-from-Early-Old-Norse-to-Eittlandic-V-U-ə-diphthongs-fjh0pnr0uaj0
:END:
A recent evolution in Western Eittland is weakening any unstressed
vowel that is not a diphthong to a schwa. It is only documented in
casual speech but almost never in formal speech.
+ Example ::
- Standard Eittlandic /ádreif/ (spray) {{{phon(ɛdrɑɪv)}}} > Western Casual
Eittlandic {{{phon(ɛdrɑɪv)}}}
- Standard Eittlandic /einlægr/ (/sincere/) {{{phon(ɑɪnlæɡr)}}} > Western
Casual Eittlandic {{{phon(ɑɪnləɡr)}}}
*** Simple Vowels
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Vowels-vishtyt058j0
:END:
#+name: vow-dot-gen
#+header: :var vowels=vowels-featural-list
#+begin_src emacs-lisp :wrap "src dot :file eittland/vowel-feature-tree.png"
(conlanging-list-to-graphviz vowels)
#+end_src
#+RESULTS[c52a8076dad068d0ed5c7b1b96a1461025993979]: vow-dot-gen
#+begin_src dot :file eittland/vowel-feature-tree.png
graph{graph[dpi=300,bgcolor="transparent"];node[shape=plaintext];"vowels-0jau08yx7y65"[label="vowels"];"+high-0jau08yx7y6e"[label="+high"];"vowels-0jau08yx7y65"--"+high-0jau08yx7y6e";"+round-0jau08yx7y6h"[label="+round"];"+high-0jau08yx7y6e"--"+round-0jau08yx7y6h";"+front-0jau08yx7y6l"[label="+front"];"+round-0jau08yx7y6h"--"+front-0jau08yx7y6l";"/y/-0jau08yx7y6n"[label="/y/"];"+front-0jau08yx7y6l"--"/y/-0jau08yx7y6n";"-front-0jau08yx7y6t"[label="-front"];"+round-0jau08yx7y6h"--"-front-0jau08yx7y6t";"/u/-0jau08yx7y6w"[label="/u/"];"-front-0jau08yx7y6t"--"/u/-0jau08yx7y6w";"-round-0jau08yx7y75"[label="-round"];"+high-0jau08yx7y6e"--"-round-0jau08yx7y75";"/i/-0jau08yx7y78"[label="/i/"];"-round-0jau08yx7y75"--"/i/-0jau08yx7y78";"-high-0jau08yx7y7m"[label="-high"];"vowels-0jau08yx7y65"--"-high-0jau08yx7y7m";"+round-0jau08yx7y7q"[label="+round"];"-high-0jau08yx7y7m"--"+round-0jau08yx7y7q";"+tense-0jau08yx7y7t"[label="+tense"];"+round-0jau08yx7y7q"--"+tense-0jau08yx7y7t";"+front-0jau08yx7y7w"[label="+front"];"+tense-0jau08yx7y7t"--"+front-0jau08yx7y7w";"/ø/-0jau08yx7y80"[label="/ø/"];"+front-0jau08yx7y7w"--"/ø/-0jau08yx7y80";"-front-0jau08yx7y87"[label="-front"];"+tense-0jau08yx7y7t"--"-front-0jau08yx7y87";"/o/-0jau08yx7y8a"[label="/o/"];"-front-0jau08yx7y87"--"/o/-0jau08yx7y8a";"-tense-0jau08yx7y8k"[label="-tense"];"+round-0jau08yx7y7q"--"-tense-0jau08yx7y8k";"+low-0jau08yx7y8o"[label="+low"];"-tense-0jau08yx7y8k"--"+low-0jau08yx7y8o";"/œ/-0jau08yx7y8s"[label="/œ/"];"+low-0jau08yx7y8o"--"/œ/-0jau08yx7y8s";"-low-0jau08yx7y8y"[label="-low"];"-tense-0jau08yx7y8k"--"-low-0jau08yx7y8y";"/ɔ/-0jau08yx7y90"[label="/ɔ/"];"-low-0jau08yx7y8y"--"/ɔ/-0jau08yx7y90";"-round-0jau08yx7y9m"[label="-round"];"-high-0jau08yx7y7m"--"-round-0jau08yx7y9m";"+tense-0jau08yx7y9p"[label="+tense"];"-round-0jau08yx7y9m"--"+tense-0jau08yx7y9p";"+low-0jau08yx7y9s"[label="+low"];"+tense-0jau08yx7y9p"--"+low-0jau08yx7y9s";"/æ/-0jau08yx7y9v"[label="/æ/"];"+low-0jau08yx7y9s"--"/æ/-0jau08yx7y9v";"-low-0jau08yx7ya1"[label="-low"];"+tense-0jau08yx7y9p"--"-low-0jau08yx7ya1";"/e/-0jau08yx7yaa"[label="/e/"];"-low-0jau08yx7ya1"--"/e/-0jau08yx7yaa";"-tense-0jau08yx7yal"[label="-tense"];"-round-0jau08yx7y9m"--"-tense-0jau08yx7yal";"+low-0jau08yx7yao"[label="+low"];"-tense-0jau08yx7yal"--"+low-0jau08yx7yao";"/a/-0jau08yx7yar"[label="/a/"];"+low-0jau08yx7yao"--"/a/-0jau08yx7yar";"-low-0jau08yx7yaw"[label="-low"];"-tense-0jau08yx7yal"--"-low-0jau08yx7yaw";"/ɛ/-0jau08yx7yaz"[label="/ɛ/"];"-low-0jau08yx7yaw"--"/ɛ/-0jau08yx7yaz";}
#+end_src
#+name: tree:vowels
#+attr_html: :alt Eittlandic Vowel Featural Tree :class gentree :loading lazy
#+caption: Eittlandic Vowels Featural Tree
#+RESULTS[93d18c3e267627e50cf901dcc820c34aaab89eab]:
[[file:img/eittland/vowel-feature-tree.png]]
**** Private Data :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Vowels-Private-Data-jt8bq9m0eaj0
:END:
#+name: vowels-featural-list
- vowels
- +high
- +round
- +front
- /y/
- -front
- /u/
- -round
- /i/
- -high
- +round
- +tense
- +front
- /ø/
- -front
- /o/
- -tense
- +low
- /œ/
- -low
- /ɔ/
- -round
- +tense
- +low
- /æ/
- -low
- /e/
- -tense
- +low
- /a/
- -low
- /ɛ/
*** Consonants
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Consonants-xethtyt058j0
:END:
**** Private Data :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Consonants-Private-Data-sfcbpfm0eaj0
:END:
*** Pitch and Stress
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonetic-Inventory-and-Translitteration-Pitch-and-Stress-br8ank61e8j0
:END:
** Phonotactics
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Phonotactics-r2whtyt058j0
:END:
*** Syllable Structur
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonotactics-Syllable-Structure-hhx3zk40f8j0
:END:
*** Allophony
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Overview-Phonotactics-Allophony-x185lum0jaj0
:END:
** Word Structure
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Word-Structure-n6vhtyt058j0
:END:
** World Classes :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-aywhtyt058j0
:END:
*** Names
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Names-ztxhtyt058j0
:END:
# - What are the distributional properties of nouns?
# - What are the structural properties of nouns?
# - What are the major formally distinct subcategories of nouns?
# - What is the basic structure of the noun word (for polysynthetic
# languages) and/or noun phrases (for more isolating languages)?
**** Countables and Uncountables
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Names-Countables-and-Uncountables-sqyhtyt058j0
:END:
**** Proper Nouns
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Names-Proper-Nouns-0ozhtyt058j0
:END:
*** Pronouns and Anaphoric Clitics
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Pronouns-and-Anaphoric-Clitics-9k0ityt058j0
:END:
# - Does the language have free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics?
# (These are distinct from grammatical agreement.)
# - Give a chart of the free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics.
**** Personal Pronouns
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Pronouns-and-Anaphoric-Clitics-Personal-Pronouns-cps4r0u058j0
:END:
**** Demonstrative Pronouns
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Pronouns-and-Anaphoric-Clitics-Demonstrative-Pronouns-2qt4r0u058j0
:END:
**** Possessive Pronouns
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Pronouns-and-Anaphoric-Clitics-Possessive-Pronouns-2pu4r0u058j0
:END:
*** Verbs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-xg1ityt058j0
:END:
# - What are the distributional properties of verbs?
# - What are the structural properties of verbs?
# - What are the major subclasses of verbs?
# - Describe the order of various verbal operators within the verbal
# - word or verb phrase.
# - Give charts of th
# - tense/aspect/mode, etc. Indicate major allomorphic variants.
# - Are directional and/or locational notions expressed in the verb or
# - verb phrase at all?
# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the
# paradigm have to occur in every finite verb or verb phrase?
# - Is it productiv
# verb stems, and does it have the same meaning with each one?
# (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more
# productive than others.)
# - Is this operation primarily coded morphologically, analytically,
# or lexically? Are there any exceptions to the general case?
# - Where in the verb phrase or verbal word is this operation likely
# to appear? Can it occur in more than one place?
**** Verbal Structure
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Verbs-Verbal-Structure-zfubf8u058j0
:END:
**** Verbal Derivations
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Verbs-Verbal-Derivations-tezbf8u058j0
:END:
**** Verbal Inflexions
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Verbs-Verbal-Inflexions-443cf8u058j0
:END:
*** Modifiers
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-yw5cf8u058j0
:END:
# - If you posit a morphosyntactic category of adjectives, give
# evidence for not grouping theseforms with the verbs or nouns. What
# characterizes a form as being an adjective in this language?
# - How can you characterize semantically the class of concepts coded
# by this formal category?
# - Do adjectives agr
# noun class)?
# - What kind of syst
# - How high can a fluent native speaker count without resorting
# either to words from another language or to a generic word like
# /many/? Exemplify the system up to this point.
# - Do numerals agree with their head nouns (number, case, noun
# class, ...)?
**** Descriptive Adjectives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Descriptive-Adjectives-pcpelau058j0
:END:
**** Non-Numeral Quantifiers
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Non-Numeral-Quantifiers-zsselau058j0
:END:
**** Numerals
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Numerals-4gvelau058j0
:END:
*** Adverbs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Adverbs-6lxelau058j0
:END:
# - What characterikes a form as being an adverb in this language? If
# you posit a distinct class of adverbs, argue for why these forms
# should not be treated as nouns, verbs, or adjectives.
# - For each kind of adverb listed in this section, list a few members
# of the type, and specify whether there are any restrictions
# relavite to that type, e.g. where they can come in a clause, any
# morphemes common to the type, etc.
# - Are any of these classes of adverbs related to older
# complement-taking (matrix) verbs?
*** Adpositions
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Adpositions-isib3bu058j0
:END:
*** Grammatical Particules
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Grammatical-Particules-q0kb3bu058j0
:END:
** Constituants Order Typology :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-xaujqgu058j0
:END:
*** Constituants Order in Main Clauses
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-Constituants-Order-in-Main-Clauses-6bvjqgu058j0
:END:
# - What is the neutral order of free elements in the unit?
# - Are there variations?
# - How do the variant orders function?
# - Specific to the main clause constituent order: What is the
# pragmatically neutral order of constituents (A/S, P, and V) in
# basic clauses of the language?
*** Constituants Order in Nominal Clauses
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-Constituants-Order-in-Nominal-Clauses-195lqgu058j0
:END:
# - Describe the order(s) of elements in the noun phrase.
*** Constituants Order in Verbal Clauses
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-Constituants-Order-in-Verbal-Clauses-f76lqgu058j0
:END:
# - Where do auxliari
# verb?
# - Where do verb-phrase adverbs occur with respect to the verb and
# auxiliaries?
*** Adpositional Phrases
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-Adpositional-Phrases-g57lqgu058j0
:END:
# - Is the language dominantly prepositional or post-positional? Give
# examples.
# - Do many adpositions come from nouns or verbs?
*** Comparatives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-Comparatives-u18lqgu058j0
:END:
# - Does the language have one or more grammaticalized comparative
# constructions? If so, what is the order of the standard, the
# marker and the quality by which an item is compared to the
# standard?
*** Questions
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Constituants-Order-Typology-Questions-qx8lqgu058j0
:END:
# - In yes/no questions, if there is a question particle, where does
# it occur?
# - In information qu
** Structure of a Nominal Group :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-nu66umu058j0
:END:
*** Composed Words
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Composed-Words-7w76umu058j0
:END:
# - Is there noun-noun compounding that results in a noun (e.g.
# /windshield/)?
# - How do you know it is compounding?
# - Is there noun-verb (or verb-noun) compounding that results in a
# noun (e.g. /pickpocket/, /scarecrow/)?
# - Are these process
# can-opener)? How common is compounding?
*** Denominalization
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Denominalization-c296umu058j0
:END:
# - Are there any processes (productive or not) that form a verb from
# a noun?
# - An adjective from a noun?
# - An adverb from a noun?
*** Numbers
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Numbers-n0a6umu058j0
:END:
# - Is number express
# - Is the distinction between singular and non-singular obligatory,
# optional, or completely absent in the noun phrase?
# - If number marking is “optional”, when does it tend to occur, and
# when does it tend not to occur?
# - If number marking is obligatory, is number overtly expressed for
# all noun phrases or only some subclasses of noun phrases, such as
# animate?
# - What non-singular distinctions are there?
*** Grammatical Case
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Grammatical-Case-bya6umu058j0
:END:
# - Do nouns exhibit morphological case?
# - If so, what are the cases? (The functions of the cases will be
# elaborated in lat
*** Articles and Demonstratives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Articles-and-Demonstratives-owb6umu058j0
:END:
# - Do noun phrases have articles?
# - If so, are they obligatory or optional, and under what
# circumstances do they occur?
# - Are they separate words, or bound morphemes?
# - Is there a class of classes of demonstratives as distinct from
# articles?
# - How many degrees of distance are there in the system of
# demontsratives?
# - Are there other distinctions beside distances?
*** Possessives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Possessives-8xc6umu058j0
:END:
# - How are possessors expressed in the noun phrase?
# - Do nouns agree with their possessors? Do possessors agree with
# possessed nouns? Neither, or both?
# - Is there a distinction between alienable and inalienable
# possesson?
# - Are there other types of possession?
# - When the possessor is a full noun, where does it usually come with
# respect to the possessed noun?
*** Classes (including Gender)
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Classes-including-Gender-i2e6umu058j0
:END:
# - Is there a noun class system?
# - What are the classes and how are they manifested in the noun
# phrase?
# - What dimension of reality is most central to the noun class system
# (e.g. animacy, shape, function, etc.)? What other dimensions are
# relevant?
# - Do the classifiers occur with numerals? Adjectives? Verbs?
# - What is their function in these contexts?
*** Diminution/Augmentation
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Diminution-Augmentation-41f6umu058j0
:END:
# - Does the language employ diminutive and/or augmentative operators
# in the noun or noun phrase?
# - Questions to answ
# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the
# paradigm have to occur in every full noun phrase?
# - Is it productiv
# full noun phras
# one? (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more
# so than others.)
# - Is this operation primarily expressed lexically,
# morphologically, or analytically?
# - Where in the noun phrase is this operation likely to be located?
# - Can it occur in more than one place?
** Predicates and Linked Constructions :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Predicates-and-Linked-Constructions-9vn42yu058j0
:END:
*** Nominal Predicates
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Predicates-and-Linked-Constructions-Nominal-Predicates-6zo42yu058j0
:END:
# - How are proper inclusion and equative predicates formed?
# - What restrictions are there, if any, on the TAM marking of such
# clauses?
*** Adjective Predicates
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Predicates-and-Linked-Constructions-Adjective-Predicates-11q42yu058j0
:END:
# - How are predicate adjective formed? (Include a separate section on
# predicate adjectives only if they are structurally distinct from
# predicate nominals.)
*** Locative Predicat
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Predicates-and-Linked-Constructions-Locative-Predicates-y5r42yu058j0
:END:
# - How are locational clauses (or predicate locatives) formed?
*** Existential Predicates
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Predicates-and-Linked-Constructions-Existential-Predicates-wds42yu058j0
:END:
# - How are existential clauses formed? (Give examples in different
# tense/aspects, especially if there is significant variation.)
# - How are negative
# - Are there extended uses of existential morphology? (Provide
# pointers to other relevant sections of the grammar.)
*** Possessive Clauses
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Predicates-and-Linked-Constructions-Possessive-Clauses-6gt42yu058j0
:END:
# - How are possessiv
** Verbal Groups Structure :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Verbal-Groups-Structure-hhu42yu058j0
:END:
** Intransitive Claus
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Intransitive-Clauses-x3k4i1v058j0
:END:
** Ditransitive Claus
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Ditransitive-Clauses-2yl4i1v058j0
:END:
** Dependent Type Clauses :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Dependent-Type-Clauses-gln4i1v058j0
:END:
*** Non-Finite
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Dependent-Type-Clauses-Non-Finite-99p4i1v058j0
:END:
*** Semi-Finite
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Dependent-Type-Clauses-Semi-Finite-urq4i1v058j0
:END:
*** Finite
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Structural-Preview-Dependent-Type-Clauses-Finite-44s4i1v058j0
:END:
* Functional System :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-va2ityt058j0
:END:
** Grammatical Relationship
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Grammatical-Relationship-dj9g86v058j0
:END:
# Examplify some simple intransitive, transitive, and ditransitive
# clauses. Three-argument clauses may not unequivocally exist.
# - What are the grammatical erlations of this language? Give
# morphosyntactic evidence for each one that you propose.
# - Subject?
# - Ergative?
# - Absolutive?
# - Direct object?
# - Indirect object?
# There are basically four possible sources of evidence for
# grammatical relations:
# - morphological case on NPs
# - person marking on verbs
# - constituent ord
# - some pragmatic hierarchy
# - Is the system of grammatical relations in basic (affirmative,
# declarative) clauses organized according to a
# nominative/accusative, ergative/absolutive, tripartite, or some
# other system?
# - Is there a split system for organizing grammatical relations? If
# so, what determin
# - Is there split instransitivity? If so, what semantic or
# discourse/pragmatic factor conditions the split?
# - Does the system for pronouns and/or person marking on verbs
# operate on the same basis as that of full NPs?
# - Are there different grammatical-relation systems depending on
# the clause type (e.g. main vs. dependent clauses, affirmative
# vs. negative clauses)?
# - Are there different grammatical-relation assignment systems
# depending on th
# - Are there any syntactic processes (e.g. conjunction reduction,
# relativization) that operate on an ergative/absolutive basis?
** Constructions Link
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Constructions-Linked-to-Voice-and-Valence-g5ceo8v058j0
:END:
** Valence Increase
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Valence-Increase-dsdeo8v058j0
:END:
*** Causative
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Valence-Increase-Causative-hafeo8v058j0
:END:
*** Applicative
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Valence-Increase-Applicative-7pgeo8v058j0
:END:
*** Dative Shift
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Valence-Increase-Dative-Shift-n3ieo8v058j0
:END:
*** Dative Interest
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Valence-Increase-Dative-Interest-tgjeo8v058j0
:END:
*** External Possession
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Functional-System-Valence-Increase-External-Possession-opkeo8v058j0
:END:
* Dictionary
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-y2icocp0h5j0
:END:
** A
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-A-wtcczzm0jaj0
:END:
** Á
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Á-4kfczzm0jaj0
:END:
** Æ
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Æ-2diczzm0jaj0
:END:
** B
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-B-ae79d268
:END:
** C
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-C-29dc766b
:END:
** D
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-D-h7lczzm0jaj0
:END:
** Đ
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Đ-jpnczzm0jaj0
:END:
** E
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-E-54360434
:END:
** É
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-É-aeqczzm0jaj0
:END:
** F
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-F-r4tczzm0jaj0
:END:
** G
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-G-5a9af03c
:END:
** H
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-H-5qvczzm0jaj0
:END:
** I
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-I-a81a4697
:END:
** Í
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Í-s9yczzm0jaj0
:END:
** J
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-J-88f57f6a
:END:
** K
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-K-bl1dzzm0jaj0
:END:
** L
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-L-j64dzzm0jaj0
:END:
** M
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-M-cccfd958
:END:
** N
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-N-0ef6f2af
:END:
** O
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-O-cf8f0e3f
:END:
** Ó
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Ó-y77dzzm0jaj0
:END:
** Ǫ
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Ǫ-xv9dzzm0jaj0
:END:
** Ø
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-8fcb6e1e
:END:
** Œ
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-Œ-0c780f53
:END:
** P
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-P-2b7ab301
:END:
** Q
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-Q-b1ec8323
:END:
** R
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-R-fmcdzzm0jaj0
:END:
** S
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-S-e9e187ae
:END:
** T
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-T-phfdzzm0jaj0
:END:
** Þ
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Þ-t6idzzm0jaj0
:END:
** U
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-U-fa109e34
:END:
** Ú
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-Ú-c35e6434
:END:
** V
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-V-urkdzzm0jaj0
:END:
** Y
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-Y-a217cb68
:END:
** Ý
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionary-Ý-iendzzm0jaj0
:END:
** Z
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Dictionnaire-Z-144a2853
:END:
* Private Data :noexport:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Private-Data-q4hgd1d0uaj0
:END:
#+name: eittland-religions
| / | < | | | | | |
| Year | Norse Faith | Atheism | Church of Eittland | Christianity | Buddhism | Other |
|------+-------------+---------+--------------------+--------------+----------+-------|
| 1900 | 97 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| 1950 | 93 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 |
| 1975 | 84 | 7 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 5 |
| 2000 | 75 | 9 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| 2019 | 68 | 15 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 3 |
* Footnotes
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Footnotes-uybi3030e5j0
:END:
[fn:3] [[https://phundrak.com][phundrak.com]]
[fn:2] [[https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/][creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/]]
[fn:1] [[https://langue.phundrak.com][langue.phundrak.com]]
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