#+setupfile: ../headers
* Phonetic Inventory and Translitteration
** Evolution from Early Old Norse to Eittlandic
Eittlandic evolved early on from Early Old Norse, and as such some
vowels it evolved from are different from the Old Norse vowels and
consonants some other Nordic languages evolved from. In this chapter,
we will see the main list of attested phonetic evolution Eittlandic
lived through.

The history of Eittlandic goes from the late 8th century until
modern-day Eittlandic. Its history is divided as shown on table below.
It is not an exact science though as changes happened progressively
through the country. Changes were also progressive, meaning the dates
chosen to go from one language to the other are relatively arbitrary.
In evolution examples, it will be indicated whether the Eittlandic
pronunciation is specific to a certain time area (with /Early Middle
Eittlandic/, /Late Old Eittlandic/, etc…) but if it only specifies
/Eittlandic/ it means no significant changes in pronunciation occurred
since the phonetic rule shown. Meaning is also shown between
parenthesis. In case of semantic shift, its new meaning in Eittlandic
is shown --- the same goes for the word’s spelling.

#+name: table:history-eittlandic-language
#+caption: Linguistic eras of Eittland
| Period                      | Language          |
|-----------------------------+-------------------|
| 8th century - 12th century  | Old Eittlandic    |
| 13th century - 16th century | Middle Eittlandic |
| 17th century - today        | Modern Eittlandic |

It is generally considered the gj-shift of the 13th century is the
evolution that marks the change from Old Eittlandic to Middle
Eittlandic while the great vowel shift marks the change from Middle
Eittlandic to Modern Eittlandic between the 16th and the 17th century.

*** hʷ > ʍ
One of the first evolution of the Eittlandic was the evolution of the
{{{phon(hʷ)}}} into a {{{phon(ʍ)}}} (written «hv»). It differs from other nordic
languages which evolved their {{{phon(hʷ)}}} into a {{{phon(v)}}}, like in
Icelandic or in Norwegian. However, this evolution is cause to debate,
mainly due to the original phoneme {{{phon(hʷ)}}} which could be inherited
from Proto-Norse instead.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Early Old Norse or Late Proto-Norse /hvat/ (what) {{{phon(hʷɑt)}}} >
Eittlandic /hvat/ (what) {{{phon(ʍɑt)}}}
#+html: :::

*** C / #h_ > C[-voice]
When preceded by a {{{phon(h)}}}, word-initial consonants such as «l», «r»,
«n» would lose their voicing and become voiceless consonants. Note
«hj» went to {{{phon(ç)}}}.

#+html: ::: tip Example
- Early Old Norse /hlóð/ (/hearth/) {{{phon(hloːð)}}} > Old Eittlandic /hlóð/
  {{{phon(l̥oːð)}}}
- Early Old-Norse /hneisa/ (/shame, disgrace/) {{{phon(hneisɑ)}}} > Early Old
  Eittlandic {{{phon(n̥eisɑ)}}}
- Early Old Norse /hrifs/ (/robbery/) {{{phon(hrifs)}}} > Old Norse {{{phon(r̥ifs)}}}
- Early Old Norse /hjól/ (wheel) {{{phon(hjoːl)}}} > Old Eittlandic {{{phon(çoːl)}}}
#+html: :::

*** g / {#,V}_⁣{V,#} > ɣ
In word-initial position and followed by a vowel or when between
vowels, Early Old Norse {{{phon(g)}}} gets palatalized into a {{{phon(ɣ)}}}.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Early Old Norse /gegn/ (/against, right opposite/) {{{phon(gegn̩)}}} > Old
Eittlandic {{{phon(ɣegn̩)}}}
#+html: :::

*** V / _⁣# > ∅ ! j _
When finishing a word, short unaccented vowels disappeared.
Historically, they first went through a weakening transforming them
into a {{{phon(ə)}}}, but they eventually disappeared before long vowels got
affected by the first part of the rule. However, it did not apply to
final vowels following a «j».

#+html: ::: tip Example
Old Norse /heilsa/ (/health/) {{{phon(heilsɑ)}}} > Late Old Eittlandic /heils/
{{{phon(heils)}}}.
#+html: :::

Reflecting this change, the last vowel got lost in the Eittlandic
orthography. However, this rule did not get applied consistently with
a good deal of people that kept them well until the [[file:./phonology.md#great-vowel-shift][Great Vowel Shift]].

*** V / j_# > ə
While the final short vowel of words did not disappear when preceded
by a «j», they still weakened to a schwa.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Old Norse /sitja/ (/to sit/) {{{phon(sitjɑ)}}} > Old Eittlandic {{{phon(sitjə)}}}
#+html: :::

*** Vː / _# > ə
When at the end of a word, long unaccented vowels get weakened into a
schwa.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Old Norse /erþó/ (as though) {{{phon(erθoː)}}} > Late Old Eittlandic
{{{phon(erθə)}}}.
#+html: :::

Notice how in the modern orthography the «ó» didn’t get lost, unlike
with the previous rule. Unlike the schwa from the previous rule, the
current schwa still bears the long vowel feature, although it is not
pronounced any more by that point, influencing the [[file:./phonology.md#ə-long-c-∅][final schwa loss]].

*** ɣ / {#,V}_ > j ! _{l,j}
During the 13th century, continued palatalization of the letter «g»
when beginning or preceding a vowel transformed it from {{{phon(g)}}} in
Proto-Norse to {{{phon(ɣ)}}} in Old Eittlandic to {{{phon(j)}}} in Early Modern
Eittlandic.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Old Norse /gauð/ (a barking) {{{phon(gɑuð)}}} > Early Middle Eittlandic /gauð/
(a barking, a quarrel) {{{phon(jɑuð)}}}.
#+html: :::

This is the first rule of the g/j-shift along with the three next
rules, marking the passage from Old Eittlandic to Middle Eittlandic.

*** gl > gʲ
The exception to the above rule is the «g» remains a hard {{{phon(g)}}} when
followed by an «l» in which case {{{phon(gl)}}} becomes {{{phon(gʲ)}}}.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Old Norse /óglaðr/ (sad, moody) {{{phon(oːɡlɑðr̩)}}} > Early Middle Eittlandic
/óglaðr/ (very sad, miserable) {{{phon(oːɡʲɑðr̩)}}}
#+html: :::

*** d g n s t / _j > C[+palat]
Another exception to the [[file:./phonology.md#g-v-%E2%81%A3-v-ɣ][lenition of {{{phon(ɡ)}}}]] is it remained until the
appearance of this change a hard {{{phon(g)}}} when followed by a {{{phon(j)}}}.
It however ended up getting assimilated by {{{phon(j)}}}. Other phonemes
{{{phon(d)}}}, {{{phon(h)}}}, {{{phon(n)}}}, {{{phon(s)}}}, and {{{phon(t)}}} also get palatalized,
assimilated by the following {{{phon(j)}}}. In the end, we have the
conversion table given by the table below.

#+name: cons:palatalization
#+caption: Consonants palatalization
| Early Old Norse | Eittlandic |
|-----------------+------------|
| {{{phon(dj)}}}        | {{{phon(dʒ)}}}   |
| {{{phon(gj)}}}        | {{{phon(j)}}}    |
| {{{phon(nj)}}}        | {{{phon(ɲ)}}}    |
| {{{phon(sj)}}}        | {{{phon(ʃ)}}}    |
| {{{phon(tj)}}}        | {{{phon(tʃ)}}}   |

Note this is also applicable to devoiced consonants [[file:phonology#c-h-c-voice][described above]].

#+html: ::: tip Example
- Early Old Norse /djúp/ (/deep/) {{{phon(djuːp)}}} > Middle Eittlandic /djúp/
  (/deep, profound/) {{{phon(dʒuːp)}}}
- Early Old Norse /gjøf/ (/gift/) {{{phon(gjøf)}}} > Early Middle Eittlandic
  {{{phon(jøf)}}}
- Early Old Norse /snjór/ (/snow/) {{{phon(snjoːr)}}} > Middle Eittlandic
  {{{phon(sɲoːr)}}}
- Early Old Norse /hnjósa/ (/to sneeze/) {{{phon(hnjoːsɑ)}}} > Middle Eittlandic
  {{{phon(ɲ̥oːs)}}}
- Early Old Norse /sjá/ (/to see/) {{{phon(sjɑː)}}} > Middle Eittlandic
  {{{phon(ʃɑː)}}}
- Early Old Norse /skilja/ (/to understand, to distinguish/) {{{phon(skiljɑ)}}}
  > Early Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiljə)}}}
- Old Eittlandic /sitja/ (/to sit/) {{{phon(sitjə)}}} > Middle Eittlandic
  {{{phon(sitʃə)}}}
#+html: :::

*** j > jə / _#
With the appearance of word-final {{{phon(j)}}}, and epenthtetic {{{phon(ə)}}}
appeared due to the phonological rule forbidding word-final consonant
clusters to end with a {{{phon(j)}}}.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Early Old Norse /berg/ (/rock/, /boulder/) {{{phon(berɡ)}}} > Middle Eittlandic
/berg/ {{{phon(berjə)}}}
#+html: :::

*** u / V_ > ʊ
When following another vowel, {{{phon(u)}}} becomes an {{{phon(ʊ)}}}.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Old Norse /kaup/ (/bargain/) {{{phon(kɑup)}}} > Early Middle Eittlandic
{{{phon(kɑʊp)}}}
#+html: :::

*** {s,z} / _C[+plos] > ʃ
If {{{phon(s)}}} or {{{phon(z)}}} precede a plosive consonant, they become
palatalized into a {{{phon(ʃ)}}} --- the distinction between «s» and «z» is
lost.

#+html: ::: tip Example
- Old Norse /fiskr/ (/fish/) {{{phon(fiskr̩)}}} > Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(fiʃkr̩)}}}
- Early Old Norse /vizka/ (/wisdom/) {{{phon(βizkɑ)}}} > Middle Eittlandic /viska/
  {{{phon(βiʃk)}}}
#+html: :::

Note that in the Modern Eittlandic orthography, the «z» is replaced
with an «s».

*** f / {V,C[+voice]}_ {V,C[+voice],#} > v
When a «f» is either surrounded by voice phonemes or is preceded by a
voiced phoneme and ends a word, it gets voiced into a {{{phon(v)}}}.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Old Norse /úlf/ (wolf) {{{phon(uːlf)}}} > Middle Eittlandic /úlv/ {{{phon(uːlv)}}}.
#+html: :::

*** l / _j > ʎ
When followed by a «j», any «l» becomes a {{{phon(ʎ)}}}, merging with the
following «j».

#+html: ::: tip Example
Early Middle Eittlandic /skilja/ (to understand, to distinguish)
{{{phon(ʃkiljə)}}} > Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiʎə)}}}
#+html: :::

*** ɑʊ > oː
Sometime in the 15th century, any occurence of «au», pronounced by
then {{{phon(ɑʊ)}}}, began shifting to {{{phon(oː)}}}.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Early Middle Eittlandic /kaup/ (/bargain/) {{{phon(kɑʊp)}}} > Late Middle
Eittlandic /kaup/ (/commerce/) {{{phon(koːp)}}}
#+html: :::

*** C[+long +plos -voice] > C[+fric] ! / _C > C[+long +plos] > C[-long]
Unless followed by another consonant, any unvoiced long plosive
consonant becomes a short affricate while other long plosives simply
become shorter.

#+html: ::: tip Example
- Old Norse /edda/ (great grandmother) {{{phon(edːɑ)}}} > Late Middle
  Eittlandic /edda/ (great grandmother, femalle ancestor) {{{phon(edɑ)}}}
- Old Norse /Eittland/ {{{phon(eitːlɑnd)}}} > Late Middle Eittlandic
  {{{phon(eitlɑnd)}}}
- Old Norse /uppá/ (/upon/) {{{phon(upːɑː)}}} > Late Middle Eittlandic
  {{{phon(upɸə)}}}
#+html: :::

*** r > ʁ (Eastern Eittlandic)
From the beginning of the 16th century, the Eastern Eittlandic {{{phon(r)}}}
began morphing into an {{{phon(ʁ)}}} in all contexts except in word-final
«-r», remanants of Old Norse’s nominative «-R». This is typical in the
Eastern region of Eittland, and it can be even heard in some dialects
of Southern Eittlandic.

#+html: ::: tip Example
- Old Norse /dratta/ (/to trail/ or /walk like a cow/) {{{phon(drɑtʃ)}}} > Eastern
  Modern Eittlandic /dratt/ (/act mindlessly/) {{{phon(dʁɑtʃ)}}}
- Early Old Norse /fjárdráttr/ (/(unfairly) making money/)
  {{{phon(fjɑːdrɑːtːr̩)}}} > Eastern Modern Eittlandic /fjárdráttr/ (/to scam/)
  {{{phon(fjɛʁdʁɛtr̩)}}}
#+html: :::

*** Great Vowel Shift
The great vowel shift happened during the 16th and 17th century during
which long vowels underwent a length loss, transforming them into
different short vowels. Only three rules governed this shift:
- V[+high +long] > V[-high -long +LT]
- V[+tense +long] > V[-tense -long +LT]
- V[-tense +long] > V[-long -low +LT]

This shift reintroduced a bitonal system in Eittlandic, contrasting
former long vowels with short vowels. Hence, the vowels evolved as
shown in the table below.
#+name: vow:eittland:evolution
#+caption: Evolution of Old Norse long vowels to Eittlandic short vowels
| Orthography | Old Eittlandic vowel | Modern Eittlandic Vowel |
|-------------+----------------------+-------------------------|
| á           | {{{phon(ɑː)}}}             | {{{phon(ɛ̀)}}}                 |
| é           | {{{phon(eː)}}}             | {{{phon(ɛ̀)}}}                 |
| í           | {{{phon(iː)}}}             | {{{phon(è)}}}                 |
| ó           | {{{phon(oː)}}}             | {{{phon(ɔ̀)}}}                 |
| œ (ǿ)       | {{{phon(øː)}}}             | {{{phon(œ̀)}}}                 |
| ú           | {{{phon(uː)}}}             | {{{phon(ò)}}}                 |
| ý           | {{{phon(yː)}}}             | {{{phon(ø̀)}}}                 |

As you can see, some overlap is possible from Old Norse vowels and
Modern Eittlandic vowels. For instance, Eittlanders will read «é» and
«á» both as an {{{phon(ɛ̀)}}}.

#+html: ::: tip Example
- Middle Eittlandic /sjá/ (/to see/) {{{phon(ʃɑː)}}} > Modern Eittlandic
  {{{phon(ʃɛ̀)}}}
- Old Norse /fé/ (/cattle/) {{{phon(feː)}}} > Modern Eittlandic /fé/ (wealth)
  {{{phon(fɛ̀)}}}
- Late Proto-Norse /hví/ (/why/) {{{phon(hʷiː)}}} > Modern Eittlandic {{{phon(ʍè)}}}
- Old Norse /bók/ (/beech/, /book/) {{{phon(boːk)}}} > Modern Eittlandic (/book/)
  {{{phon(bɔ̀k)}}}
- Early Old Norse /œgir/ (/frightener/, /terrifier/) {{{phon(øːɡir)}}} > Modern
  Eittlandic /Œgir/ (a kind of mythical beast) {{{phon(œ̀jir)}}}
- Middle Eittlandic /úlv/ (/wolf/) {{{phon(uːlv)}}} > Modern Eittlandic
  {{{phon(òlv)}}}
#+html: :::

Diphthongs also evolved following these rules:
- {{{phon(ei)}}} > {{{phon(ɑɪ)}}}
- {{{phon(ou)}}} > {{{phon(ɔʊ)}}}
- {{{phon(øy)}}} > {{{phon(œʏ)}}}

It is probably up to this time period when Eittlandic stopped
nasalizing its vowels aside from Southern Eittland (see below),
although the timeframe regarding this evolution is very much unclear
and it might have happened as early as during the 13th century.

*** ə[-long] / C_# > ∅
As described in the [[file:./phonology.md#vː-ə][weakening of final long vowels]], the schwa
resulting from it kept its long vowel feature, although it wasn’t
pronounced anymore. This resulted in the current rule making all
schwas resulting from short vowels at the end of words to disappear
when following a voiced consonant. However, this process lengthened
any previous vowel, thus reintroducing a contrast between short vowels
and long vowels in Eittlandic. This distinction is however unmarked
when written in Standard Eittlandic due to the spelling dropping the
final vowels affected here.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Middle Eittlandic (to understand, to distinguish) {{{phon(ʃkiʎə)}}} > Modern
Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiːʎ)}}}
#+html: :::

*** C[+plos +fric] > C[-plos +long]
During the late 19th century to early 20th century, Eittlandic lost
its affricate consonants as they morphed into simple fricatives.
Therefore, some Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(pː)}}} became in Modern
Eittlandic {{{phon(ɸː)}}} through {{{phon(pɸ)}}}.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Old Norse /uppá/ (/upon/) {{{phon(upːɑː)}}} > Late Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(upɸə)}}}
> Modern Eittlandic {{{phon(uɸːə)}}}
#+html: :::

*** t / _C > ʔ ! _ʃ
When a {{{phon(t)}}} precedes another consonant, it becomes a glottal stop.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Early Modern Eittlandic /Eittland/ {{{phon(ɑɪtlɑnd)}}} > Modern  Eittlandic {{{phon(ɑɪʔlɑnd)}}}
#+html: :::

** Spelling and pronunciation
Eittlandic is written in two different alphabets: Modern Futhark, also
known as the Eittlandic runes, and the Latin alphabet. Eittland saw
some use of the Latin alphabet in the 13th and 14th century, but
documents ceased to be produced with it until the 17th century, when
immigrants from continental Europe brought this script with them and
as commerce opened up with European countries again. Until a few
decades ago, the Modern Futhark alphabet was the most popular alphabet
in use in Eittland. But since the democratisation of the computer and
smartphone, usage of the Latin alphabet saw a quick rise in
popularity. According to some estimates, only 2% of Eittlanders used
the Latin alphabet more often than the Modern Futhark alphabet in
1920, while in 2020, 23% of Eittlanders primarily use the Latin
alphabet.

Most letters are used the same way in Eittlandic as they are in most
standard European languages, with a few additions that lack in the
standard Latin alphabet, Just like Icelandic, Eittlandic still uses
the letters «þ» and «ð» when using the Latin alphabet. These letters
were already used in Old Norse but nether became deprecated, unlike in
other Nordic languages such as Swedish or Norwegian, or other Germanic
languages such as English. They represent the sounds {{{phon(θ)}}} and
{{{phon(ð)}}} respectively; unlike Old Norse, these two sounds became
distinct enough to constrast in some words, such as in /maðr/ (/man/) and
/maþr/ (maths). You will also find vowels with acute accents. They used
to represent long vowels, but due to sound changes, they are
associated with a lower tone and generaly more lax vowel, as described
below.

Aside from Standard Eittlandic, there is no standard spelling and the
language is written generally phonetically, although there is a
tendency to keep the spelling reflecting the historical pronunciation
of words; i.e. when representing the vowel {{{phon(ɛ̀)}}}, Eittlanders will
tend to write «á» when it comes from a historically long {{{phon(ɑ)}}} but
«é» if it comes from a historically long {{{phon(e)}}}. There is also a
tendency in dialects other than Standard Eittlandic to write
word-final vowels, even if they are no longer pronounced, as in «posi»
(Standard Eittlandic /pos/, meaning /seal/).

These are the letters used natively in Eittlandic:

#+begin_quote
a b d ð e f g h i j k l m n o p r s t þ u v y z ø œ
#+end_quote

All vowels, with the exception of «ø» and «œ», can bear an acute
accent, extending the list with:
#+begin_quote
á é í ó ú ý
#+end_quote

Most of these letters represent their standard phonological value, but
a few don't. Here are some rules that will help you read Eittlandic
phonetically:
- «a» :: this is an unrounded, open back vowel {{{phon(ɑ)}}} in some
  dialects, or front {{{phon(a)}}} in some others
- «á» :: this is an unrounded, mid open front vowel {{{phon(ɛ)}}} with a low
  or falling tone
- «ð» :: this is a voiced dentad fricative {{{phon(ð)}}}, as in English “this”
- «é» :: pronounced like «á»
- «g» :: the most unstable letter in Eittlandic. When in contact with
  another consonant, it will be a standard voiced uvular stop {{{phon(ɡ)}}}.
  However, if it is a word-initial consonent immediately followed by a
  vowel or between vowels, it will be pronounced as a {{{phon(j)}}}. Lastly,
  if it is word-final and preceeded by a vowel, it is pronounced as a
  voiced velar fricative {{{phon(ɣ)}}}.
- «í» :: this is an unrounded mid closed front vowel {{{phon(e)}}} with a
  low or falling tone. It contrasts with «e» wich is pronounced with a
  neutral or high tone
- «j» :: this is the palatal semivowel {{{phon(j)}}}, as in German or other
  North Germanic languages
- «ó» :: this is a rounded mid open back vowel {{{phon(ɔ)}}} with a low or falling
  tone
- «p» :: in most places, pronounced as a voiceless bilabial plosive
  {{{phon(p)}}} as expected, unless before a «t» where it becomes a
  voiceless bilabial fricative {{{phon(ɸ)}}}
- «þ» :: this is the unvoiced counterpart to «ð», the {{{phon(θ)}}}, as in
  English “think”
- «ú» :: this is a rounded mid closed back vowel {{{phon(o)}}} with a low or
  falling tone. It constrasts with neutral or high tone «o»
- «v» :: this is the voiced bilabial fricative {{{phon(β)}}}, unless when
  following an «h» in a word-initial position; in this case, «hv» is
  pronounced as a voiceless labialised velar approximant {{{phon(ʍ)}}}.
- «y» :: this is the rounded front high vowel {{{phon(y)}}}, as in German /ü/ or French /u/
- «ý» :: this is the mid front rounded vowel {{{phon(ø)}}} with a low or
  falling tone, contrasting with the neutral or high tone «ø»
  described below
- «ø» :: is a mid front rounded vowel {{{phon(ø)}}}, like German «ö» or
  French «eu» in /deux/
- «œ» :: this is a low, lax, frount rounded vowel {{{phon(œ)}}}, like French
  «eu» in «neuf», but with an additional low or falling tone

There are another three additional digraphs when it comes to vowels:
- «au» :: this is a rounded mid open back vowel {{{phon(ɔ)}}} with a neutral
  or high tone, which contrasts with «ó»
- «ei» :: this is one of the two diphthongs left in Eittlandic,
  {{{phon(ɑɪ)}}}
- «ey» :: this is the other diphthong left in Eittlandic, {{{phon(œʏ)}}}

** Vowel Inventory
Modern Eittlandic has a total of ten simple vowels and three
diphthongs, regardless of the dialect. It does not directly inherit
the vowel length contrast Old Norse bore anymore since the great vowel
shift (see the [[*Great Vowel Shift][Great Vowel Shift]]), though most of it shifted to a
bitonal contrast instead. The original bitonal contrast believed to
have existed in Old Norse has been most likely lost early on during
Eittlandic’s evolution, leaving room for the current one. The first
table below lists the Eittlandic simple vowels while the second table
lists the Eittlandic diphthongs. Note that the contrast by length or
tone is not listed in the table.

#+name: tab:vow:ipa
#+caption: Vowel inventory of Modern Eittlandic
|       <r> |  <c>  | <c>  |
|           | front | back |
|-----------+-------+------|
|     close |  i y  |  u   |
| close-mid |  e ø  |  o   |
|  open-mid |  ɛ œ  |  ɔ   |
|      open |       |  ɑ   |

#+name: tab:vow:dipththongs
#+caption: Diphthongs of Modern Eittlandic
| diphthong | phonetics |
|    <c>    |    <c>    |
|-----------+-----------|
|    ei     | {{{phon(ɑɪ)}}}  |
|    au     | {{{phon(ɔʊ)}}}  |
|    ey     | {{{phon(œʏ)}}}  |

#+name: vow-dot-gen
#+header: :var vowels=vowels-featural-list
#+begin_src emacs-lisp :wrap "src dot :file eittlandic/vowel-feature-tree.png :results none :eval no-export"
(conlanging-graphviz-feature-tree vowels :label "vowels")
#+end_src

#+RESULTS[c723b412fc993fadd185fd61b5d05018b76844ac]: vow-dot-gen
#+begin_src dot :file eittlandic/vowel-feature-tree.png :results none :eval no-export
graph{graph[dpi=300,bgcolor="transparent"];node[shape=plaintext];"vowels-0ju80zwg7uit"[label="vowels"];"+high-0ju80zwg7ujg"[label="+high"];"vowels-0ju80zwg7uit"--"+high-0ju80zwg7ujg";"+round-0ju80zwg7ukn"[label="+round"];"+high-0ju80zwg7ujg"--"+round-0ju80zwg7ukn";"+front-0ju80zwg7uli"[label="+front"];"+round-0ju80zwg7ukn"--"+front-0ju80zwg7uli";"/y/-0ju80zwg7ume"[label="/y/"];"+front-0ju80zwg7uli"--"/y/-0ju80zwg7ume";"-front-0ju80zwg7uls"[label="-front"];"+round-0ju80zwg7ukn"--"-front-0ju80zwg7uls";"/u/-0ju80zwg7un4"[label="/u/"];"-front-0ju80zwg7uls"--"/u/-0ju80zwg7un4";"-round-0ju80zwg7ukw"[label="-round"];"+high-0ju80zwg7ujg"--"-round-0ju80zwg7ukw";"/i/-0ju80zwg7unw"[label="/i/"];"-round-0ju80zwg7ukw"--"/i/-0ju80zwg7unw";"-high-0ju80zwg7ujs"[label="-high"];"vowels-0ju80zwg7uit"--"-high-0ju80zwg7ujs";"+round-0ju80zwg7uon"[label="+round"];"-high-0ju80zwg7ujs"--"+round-0ju80zwg7uon";"+tense-0ju80zwg7uph"[label="+tense"];"+round-0ju80zwg7uon"--"+tense-0ju80zwg7uph";"+front-0ju80zwg7uq9"[label="+front"];"+tense-0ju80zwg7uph"--"+front-0ju80zwg7uq9";"/ø/-0ju80zwg7ur2"[label="/ø/"];"+front-0ju80zwg7uq9"--"/ø/-0ju80zwg7ur2";"-front-0ju80zwg7uqk"[label="-front"];"+tense-0ju80zwg7uph"--"-front-0ju80zwg7uqk";"/o/-0ju80zwg7urs"[label="/o/"];"-front-0ju80zwg7uqk"--"/o/-0ju80zwg7urs";"-tense-0ju80zwg7upp"[label="-tense"];"+round-0ju80zwg7uon"--"-tense-0ju80zwg7upp";"+low-0ju80zwg7usp"[label="+low"];"-tense-0ju80zwg7upp"--"+low-0ju80zwg7usp";"/œ/-0ju80zwg7uth"[label="/œ/"];"+low-0ju80zwg7usp"--"/œ/-0ju80zwg7uth";"-low-0ju80zwg7usz"[label="-low"];"-tense-0ju80zwg7upp"--"-low-0ju80zwg7usz";"/ɔ/-0ju80zwg7uu6"[label="/ɔ/"];"-low-0ju80zwg7usz"--"/ɔ/-0ju80zwg7uu6";"-round-0ju80zwg7uoy"[label="-round"];"-high-0ju80zwg7ujs"--"-round-0ju80zwg7uoy";"+tense-0ju80zwg7uv2"[label="+tense"];"-round-0ju80zwg7uoy"--"+tense-0ju80zwg7uv2";"/e/-0ju80zwg7uvv"[label="/e/"];"+tense-0ju80zwg7uv2"--"/e/-0ju80zwg7uvv";"-tense-0ju80zwg7uvd"[label="-tense"];"-round-0ju80zwg7uoy"--"-tense-0ju80zwg7uvd";"+low-0ju80zwg7uwl"[label="+low"];"-tense-0ju80zwg7uvd"--"+low-0ju80zwg7uwl";"/ɑ/-0ju80zwg7uxc"[label="/ɑ/"];"+low-0ju80zwg7uwl"--"/ɑ/-0ju80zwg7uxc";"-low-0ju80zwg7uwv"[label="-low"];"-tense-0ju80zwg7uvd"--"-low-0ju80zwg7uwv";"/ɛ/-0ju80zwg7uy0"[label="/ɛ/"];"-low-0ju80zwg7uwv"--"/ɛ/-0ju80zwg7uy0";}
#+end_src

#+html: <ImgFigure src="/img/eittlandic/vowel-feature-tree.png" alt="Eittlandic Vowel Featural Tree">Featural tree of Eittlandic vowels</ImgFigure>

Eittlandic also has a second vowel inventory dedicated to unstressed
vowels. While the one described above describes all vowels found in
stressed positions, the unstressed inventory is much lighter.

#+name: tab:vow:unstressed
#+caption: Unstressed Vowels in Eittlandic
|  <r> |  <c>  | <c>  |
|      | front | back |
|------+-------+------|
| -low |  i/e  | u/o  |
| +low |  (œ)  |  a   |

#+name: vow-unstressed-dot-gen
#+header: :var vowels=vowels-unstressed-featural-list
#+begin_src emacs-lisp :wrap "src dot :file eittlandic/vowel-unstressed-feature-tree.png :results none :eval no-export"
(conlanging-graphviz-feature-tree vowels :label "vowels")
#+end_src

#+RESULTS[3d73fac1ce2ba93b214df135c8a1c8d7058b8a58]: vow-unstressed-dot-gen
#+begin_src dot :file eittlandic/vowel-unstressed-feature-tree.png :results none :eval no-export
graph{graph[dpi=300,bgcolor="transparent"];node[shape=plaintext];"vowels-0jyo0gw23vjp"[label="vowels"];"+low-0jyo0gw23vk7"[label="+low"];"vowels-0jyo0gw23vjp"--"+low-0jyo0gw23vk7";"+round-0jyo0gw23vkx"[label="+round"];"+low-0jyo0gw23vk7"--"+round-0jyo0gw23vkx";"/œ/-0jyo0gw23vli"[label="/œ/"];"+round-0jyo0gw23vkx"--"/œ/-0jyo0gw23vli";"-round-0jyo0gw23vl5"[label="-round"];"+low-0jyo0gw23vk7"--"-round-0jyo0gw23vl5";"/ɑ/-0jyo0gw23vm8"[label="/ɑ/"];"-round-0jyo0gw23vl5"--"/ɑ/-0jyo0gw23vm8";"-low-0jyo0gw23vkf"[label="-low"];"vowels-0jyo0gw23vjp"--"-low-0jyo0gw23vkf";"+front-0jyo0gw23vms"[label="+front"];"-low-0jyo0gw23vkf"--"+front-0jyo0gw23vms";"+high-0jyo0gw23vnb"[label="+high"];"+front-0jyo0gw23vms"--"+high-0jyo0gw23vnb";"/i/-0jyo0gw23vnv"[label="/i/"];"+high-0jyo0gw23vnb"--"/i/-0jyo0gw23vnv";"-high-0jyo0gw23vnj"[label="-high"];"+front-0jyo0gw23vms"--"-high-0jyo0gw23vnj";"/e/-0jyo0gw23vob"[label="/e/"];"-high-0jyo0gw23vnj"--"/e/-0jyo0gw23vob";"-front-0jyo0gw23vmz"[label="-front"];"-low-0jyo0gw23vkf"--"-front-0jyo0gw23vmz";"+high-0jyo0gw23vot"[label="+high"];"-front-0jyo0gw23vmz"--"+high-0jyo0gw23vot";"/u/-0jyo0gw23vpd"[label="/u/"];"+high-0jyo0gw23vot"--"/u/-0jyo0gw23vpd";"-high-0jyo0gw23vp0"[label="-high"];"-front-0jyo0gw23vmz"--"-high-0jyo0gw23vp0";"/o/-0jyo0gw23vpt"[label="/o/"];"-high-0jyo0gw23vp0"--"/o/-0jyo0gw23vpt";}
#+end_src

#+html: <ImgFigure src="/img/eittlandic/vowel-unstressed-feature-tree.png" alt="Eittlandic Vowel Featural Tree">Featural tree of unstressed Eittlandic vowels</ImgFigure>

As shown in the table above, {{{phon(i)}}} and {{{phon(e)}}}, {{{phon(u)}}} and {{{phon(o)}}},
and {{{phon(a)}}} and {{{phon(œ)}}} are considered as allophones in unstressed
positions. Their pronunciation is based on the vowel harmony spread
forward by the preceding stressed vowel.

Regarding the first two pairs, in case a vowel is not preceded by a
stressed vowel, then the first one will spread its vowel harmony
backward. Vowel harmony follows the /±high/ feature of stressed vowels,
meaning a stressed vowel with a /+high/ feature will be always followed
by either {{{phon(e)}}} or {{{phon(o)}}}.

The unstressed vowel «a» on the other hand follows the same vowel
harmony principles following the /±round/ phonological feature, morphing
into {{{phon(œ)}}} if the stressed vowel influencing it is rounded.

When writing in Standard Eittlandic, the vowel written in unstressed
position will follow its pronunciation, but when written in other
dialects, it may follow the historical spelling. The grapheme of
unstressed «a» becomes «œ» only in Standard Eittlandic, otherwise it
won’t change in other dialects.

Note the features borne by the diphthongs:
- ei :: /+high -round/
- au :: /-high +round/, same as «ó»
- ey :: same as «ei»

#+html: ::: tip Example
- djúplig :: {{{phon(dʒòpleɣ)}}}, the {{{phon(o)}}} morphed the unstressed {{{phon(i)}}} into an {{{phon(e)}}}
- pengvin :: {{{phon(peŋβen)}}}, the {{{phon(e)}}} morphed the unstressed {{{phon(i)}}} into an {{{phon(e)}}}
- øfund :: {{{phon(øvond)}}}, the {{{phon(ø)}}} morphed the unstressed {{{phon(u)}}} into an {{{phon(o)}}}
- vótnum :: {{{phon(βɔ̀tnom)}}}, the {{{phon(ɔ̀)}}} morphed the unstressed {{{phon(u)}}} into an {{{phon(o)}}}
- ofan :: {{{phon(ovœn)}}}, the {{{phon(o)}}} morphed the unstressed {{{phon(ɑ)}}} into an {{{phon(œ)}}}
- bókar :: {{{phon(bɔ̀kœr)}}}, the {{{phon(ɔ̀)}}} morphed the unstressed {{{phon(ɑ)}}} into an {{{phon(œ)}}}
#+html: :::

#+html: ::: warning But
- fiskum :: {{{phon(fiskum)}}}
- feðar :: {{{phon(feðar)}}}
#+html: :::

*** Private Data                                                :noexport:
#+name: vowels-featural-list
#+begin_src emacs-lisp
'("high"
  ("round"
   ("front" "/y/" "/u/")
   "/i/")
  ("round"
   ("tense"
    ("front" "/ø/" "/o/")
    ("low" "/œ/" "/ɔ/"))
   ("tense"
    "/e/"
    ("low" "/ɑ/" "/ɛ/"))))
#+end_src

#+name: vowels-unstressed-featural-list
#+begin_src emacs-lisp
'("low"
  ("round" "/œ/" "/ɑ/")
  ("front"
   ("high" "/i/" "/e/")
   ("high" "/u/" "/o/")))
#+end_src

** Consonant Inventory
Regarding Eittlandic's consonants, the two main changes from Old Norse
other than changes in their pronunciation is the now differenciation
between «þ» and «ð» where in Old Norse, the former was used
word-initially while the latter was used in all other positions.

Similarly, the «f» letter was used to represent both {{{phon(f)}}}
word-initially and {{{phon(v)}}} in all other positions. In Eittlandic,
voiced «f» {{{phon(v)}}} merged into «v» {{{phon(β)}}}. Therefore, the letter «f»
is no longer used to represent {{{phon(v)}}} anymore; the letter «v» is
instead used to represent both historical «v» and historically voiced
«f».

Occasionally, the letter «h» may precede another consonant in a
word-initial position, mainly «l», «r», and «v». These consonants
become devoiced, with «hl», «hr», and «hv» becoming {{{phon(l̥)}}}, {{{phon(r̥)}}},
and {{{phon(ʍ)}}} respectively.

*** Private Data                                                :noexport:

** Underlying vowels
While most word-final vowels were dropped a few centuries ago, they
still exist as underlying vowels that may affect the word's
morphology. By default, when there is no final vowel for a noun, a
dummy «i» is used to join the word with the definite morphene
together. For instance, /dag/ (/day/), a word with no underlying vowel,
which becomes /dagin/ in its singular accusative definite form. However,
even if it is no longer present in its non-definite form, /sag/ still
bears the word-final vowel «a» which appears in its definite form,
such as /sagat/ (singular accusative definite form).

** Pitch and Stress
The original bitonal pitch accent of Eittlandic is thought to have
been lost around the 10th or 11th century, though it is no certain
this dating is accurate due to next to no documentation contemporary
documentation existing regarding this evolution. It has been, however,
replaced by a newer bitonal system during the [[file:phonology.md#great-vowel-shift][Great Vowel Shift]] as a
replacement for the loss of the contrast between short and long
vowels. The low pitch is marked, while the high pitch is unmarked.

The distinction between low and high pitch is only done on stressed
vowels, whether they are the bearer of the primary stress or a
secondary stress. The primary stress always falls on the first
syllable of a word, while the secondary stress falls where the primary
stress would fall in compound words, such as /noregsúlv/
{{{phon(ˈnorejsˌòlv)}}}. In this instance, no distinction is made regarding
whether {{{phon(e)}}} is a high pitch or low pitch vowel as it bears no
stress. On the other hand, the initial {{{phon(o)}}} bears a high pitch,
while the second {{{phon(o)}}} bears a low pitch. Note that there is no
correlation between which stress carries which pitch.

** Regional accents
Eittlandic is a language in which three distinct main dialects exist
with their own accent. These three main dialects are Eastern
Eittlandic spoken in the majority Kingdom of Hylfjaltr, Western
Eittlandic spoken in the majority of the Kingdom of Ðeberget, and
Southern Eittlandic spoken on the southern parts of the island,
regardess of the legal kingdom (see the map shown in [[file:./country.md#culture][Culture]]). These
dialects are further divided into other dialects, such as the dialect
spoken around Hylfjaltr differing from the dialect spoken in the
neighbour town of Tvinnár, or the dialect spoken in Ðeberget differing
from the dialect spoken in the nearby city of Kóparvall.

Additional minor dialect exist, as Northeastern or Northwestern
Eittlandic do exist, but most of these are considered as endengered as
they are spoken mostly by older folk. Interestingly, younger
Eittlanders living in Northern Eittland are beginning to speak a new
dialect commonly referred to as /Teveseittlandsk/ (“TV Eittlandic”) or
/Internetseittlandsk/ (/Internet’s Eittlandic/). While it may have some
regional variation regarding its vocabulary, its grammar and
pronunciation tend to merge both Western and Eastern Eittlandic into a
common dialect resembling in some aspects urban Eittlandic.

*** Western Eittlandic
**** V^{U} > ə ! diphthongs
Recently, Western Eittlandic evolved a weakening of all of its
unstressed vowels that are not diphthongs, transforming them into
schwas. It is only documented in casual speech but almost never in
formal speech.

#+html: ::: tip Example
- Standard Eittlandic /ádreif/ (spray) {{{phon(ɛ̀drɑɪv)}}} > Western Casual
  Eittlandic {{{phon(ɛ̀drɑɪv)}}}
- Standard Eittlandic /einlægr/ (/sincere/) {{{phon(ɑɪnlæɡr)}}} > Western Casual
  Eittlandic {{{phon(ɑɪnləɡr)}}}
#+html: :::

**** {{{phon(ɔ)}}} and {{{phon(ɑ)}}} merger
Western Eittlandic is currently going a phonological merge of the
vowels {{{phon(ɔ)}}} and {{{phon(ɑ)}}} into {{{phon(ɒ)}}}. The vowel {{{phon(ɔ̀)}}} also
follows this pattern, morphing into {{{phon(ɒ̀)}}}.

**** Great Vowel Shift variation
While the Great Vowel Shift is happened relatively uniformly in
Eittland, some regions did not follow the same pattern as what
happened everywhere else.

The main example is the area around Đeberget where the vowel {{{phon(ɑː)}}}
evolved not as {{{phon(ɛ̀)}}} but as {{{phon(ɔ̀)}}}.

*** Eastern Eittlandic
**** {{{phon(y)}}} and {{{phon(u)}}} merger
In areas around Vestrheim especially, locals tend to merge {{{phon(y)}}}
into {{{phon(u)}}}.

**** Centralisation of {{{phon(i)}}}
In the northern rural parts of Eastern Eittland, populations tend to
centralise {{{phon(i)}}} into {{{phon(ɨ)}}}.

**** Great Vowel Shift variation
When the [[file:./phonology.md#great-vowel-shift][Great Vowel Shift]] happened, not all regions were affected the
same. As such, we can find in some rural parts of the Eastern
Eittlandic dialect area high vowels slightly more open than their
equivalent in Standard Eittlandic, as shown in table below.
#+name: vow:accent:east
#+caption: Equivalence Between Eastern Eittlandic and Standard Eittlandic
|           <c>            |         <c>         |
| Rural Eastern Eittlandic | Standard Eittlandic |
|--------------------------+---------------------|
|         {{{phon(i)}}}          |       {{{phon(ɪ)}}}       |
|         {{{phon(y)}}}          |       {{{phon(ʏ)}}}       |
|         {{{phon(u)}}}          |       {{{phon(ʊ)}}}       |

*** Southeastern Eittlandic
**** rg > ʁ
Some time after the [[file:./phonology.md#great-vowel-shift][Great Vowel Shift]], the phonemes {{{phon(r)}}} and
{{{phon(g)}}} began assimilating with one another, with an initial evolution
as {{{phon(ɣɡ)}}} which eventually led to a pronunciation of «rg» as
{{{phon(ʁ)}}}. For instance, the word /myrgun/, pronounced {{{phon(myrɡun)}}} in
Standard Eittlandic, is prononced as {{{phon(mʏʁːʊn)}}} in Southeastern
Eittlandic.

**** Ø > ʁ / V#_V
A recent evolution in Southern Eittlandic seems to highlight a
tendency for rhoticism in this dialect, as a prothesis of {{{phon(ʁ)}}}
appears to occur at the beginning of words beginning with vowels,
especially between words ending and beginning with a vowel.

#+html: ::: tip Example
- Sentence :: Ek em frá Auðfrýriboll
- Translation :: I am from Auðfrýriboll
- Standard Eittlandic :: {{{phon(ek em frɛ̀ ɔʊðfrø̀ribolː)}}}
- Southeastern Eittlandic :: {{{phon(ek em frɛ̀ ʁɔʊðfrø̀ribolː)}}}
#+html: :::

*** Southern Eittlandic
**** ɑ > a / {C[+nas],C[-cons]}_ and ɑ > ɐ
Southern Eittlandic tends to front its {{{phon(ɑ)}}} into {{{phon(a)}}} after
nasal consonants and glides and into {{{phon(ɐ)}}} otherwise.

**** VN / _ > Ṽ[-tense] ! V[+high] (Southern Eittlandic)
When preceding a nasal, any vowel that is not high as determined by
the vowel tree in [[*Vowel Inventory][Vowel Inventory]] gets nasalized when preceding a
nasal consonant and loses its tenseness if it has any. Hence, the
pronunciation of the «a» in /Eittland/ is {{{phon(ã)}}}. However, Old Norse
/runa/ (rune) {{{phon(runɑ)}}} becomes /run/ (letter, character, rune) {{{phon(run)}}}
without any nasalization.

Note this evolution is mostly proeminent in the southern regions of
Eittland and the city of Hundraðskip. It is less often documented in
Eastern Eittland and almost undocumented in Western Eittland. It is
more often documented in casual conversation buch rarer in formal
conversation, especially when the majority of the speakers in a group
are not southerners.

*** Urban Eittlandic

**** ɣ > h (Urban Eittlandic)
Since around the middle of the 20th century, urban Eittlandic started
leniting any {{{phon(ɣ)}}} into a {{{phon(h)}}}.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Standard Eittlandic /djúplig/ {{{phon(dʒòpliɣ)}}} > urban Eittlandic
  {{{phon(dʒòplih)}}}
#+html: :::

In urban areas North of Ðeberget, word-final {{{phon(h)}}} resulting from
this evolution tends to get completely dropped since around the 90s.

#+html: ::: tip Example
Standard Eittlandic /djúplig/ {{{phon(dʒòpliɣ)}}} > urban Eittlandic
{{{phon(dʒòplih)}}} > Northwestern Urban Eittlandic {{{phon(dʒòpli)}}}
#+html: :::