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docs(eittlandic): reworking the verbs
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@ -21,7 +21,7 @@
#+name: 1-2-personal-pronouns-table #+name: 1-2-personal-pronouns-table
#+caption: First and second person pronouns in Eittlandic #+caption: First and second person pronouns in Eittlandic
| | 1s | 2s | 1p | 2s | | | 1s | 2s | 1p | 2p |
|-----+-----+-----+-----+-----| |-----+-----+-----+-----+-----|
| Nom | ek | þú | vér | ér | | Nom | ek | þú | vér | ér |
| Acc | mik | þik | oss | yðr | | Acc | mik | þik | oss | yðr |
@ -129,11 +129,11 @@ or /theirs/.
# - What are the structural properties of verbs? # - What are the structural properties of verbs?
# - What are the major subclasses of verbs? # - What are the major subclasses of verbs?
# - Describe the order of various verbal operators within the verbal # - Describe the order of various verbal operators within the verbal
# - word or verb phrase. # word or verb phrase.
# - Give charts of the tense/aspect/mode, etc. Indicate major # - Give charts of the tense/aspect/mode, etc. Indicate major
# allomorphic variants. # allomorphic variants.
# - Are directional and/or locational notions expressed in the verb or # - Are directional and/or locational notions expressed in the verb or
# - verb phrase at all? # verb phrase at all?
# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the # - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the
# paradigm have to occur in every finite verb or verb phrase? # paradigm have to occur in every finite verb or verb phrase?
# - Is it productiv # - Is it productiv
@ -155,16 +155,339 @@ simplification on one hand, making the verb endings a lot more regular
and predictable, and complexification with the addition of new moods and predictable, and complexification with the addition of new moods
and tenses. and tenses.
**** Infinitive
The infinitive form of verbs in Eittlandic is generally used when the
verbal phrase it is part of is treated as the object of another
phrase, similarly to how infinitive works in other Nordic languages or
English. For instance, “he likes to eat” translates to “hann líkar
eta” ({{{phon(hanː lèkar̩ et)}}}), where “eta” is the object of the verbs
“líkar”. This form is the one given in the dictionary and undergoes no
inflexion.
**** Imperative
The imperative has the same form as the infinitive in Eittlandic. The
evolution of the Eittlandic language made it lose the second singular
and plural distinction, leaving the same form for both. Eittlandic
verbs also evolved in such a way most, if not all, of them have the
same form as their infinitive counterpart.
#+html: ::: tip Example
- Et matin þín
Eat your food!
| et | mat-inn | þín |
| eat.IMP | food-DEF.ACC | 2s.GEN |
- Et matin yðr
Eat your food!
| et | mat-inn | yðr |
| eat.IMP | food-DEF.ACC | 2p.GEN |
#+html: :::
**** Participles
Formation of participles is relatively simple in Eittlandic is pretty
simple, as it simply adds /-and/ and /-it/ to the verbal root of the verb
in order to form the present participle and the past participle
respectively.
#+name: verb-participle-declension
#+caption: Formation of Eittlandic Participles
| Present Participle | -and |
| Past Participle | -it |
**** Indicative
Indicative the only non-irrealis mood available in Eittlandic. It is
used to express events or facts that are happening or happened with
certainty from the speaker’s point of view. This mood only exists for
the present, progressive, preterit, and perfect tenses. Other tenses,
such as future, exist in other moods as explained below.
The first two basic tenses are the present and past tenses. The
present tense in Eittlandic is relatively similar to the English
present tense, as it can describe what the speaker perceives as
general truths, habitual facts, events that are happening at the same
time as the time of speech, or current facts. It can also indicate
events when the English language would use the progressive mood
instead. Eittlandic does have a progressive mood of its own, though
slightly different, see [[file:./grammar.md#progressive][below]]. Lastly, it can also express near future
when other clues are available in the discourse.
#+html: ::: tip Example
- Í Eittland, vér snakk eittlandsk.
In Eittland, we speak Eittlandic.
#+html: :::
Here is how the typical verb is inflected in the indicative mood:
#+name: verb-indicative-inflexion-table
#+caption: Typical Verb Inflexion in the Indicative Mood
| <c> | | | |
| person | | Ind. Pres. | Ind. Past |
|--------+---+------------+-----------|
| 1s | | -(V)r | -t |
| 2s | | -(V)r | -t |
| 3s | | -(V)r | -t |
| 1p | | -um | -um |
| 2p | | -ið | -uð |
| 3p | | -ið | -uð |
An important feature to note is /-(V)r/ makes the underlying final vowel
of a verb appear, while it is otherwise lost in all other contexts.
For instance, the verb /lík/ becomes /líkar/ when in singular indicative
present, but /líkt/ when in singular indicative past.
Here are the indicative present declensions of the verbs /far(a)/ (/to
go/, a strong verb), and /berja/ (/to beat/, a weak verb):
#+name: verb-inflexion-ind-example
#+caption: Indicative present inflexion of /far(a)/ and /berja/
| person | | far | berja |
|--------+---+-------+--------|
| 1s | | ferar | berjar |
| 2s | | ferar | berjar |
| 3s | | ferar | berjar |
| 1p | | farum | berjum |
| 2p | | farið | berið |
| 3p | | farið | berið |
Note that the final vowel of /berja/ gets replaced with the vowel from
the inflexion, and the final /j/ also disappears when it is immediately
followed by an /i/.
**** Subjunctive
The subjunctive is the default irrealis mood of Eittlandic. Like the indicative mood, it has two tenses, present and past, in which verbs get inflexions. Below is the table showing how verbs typically inflect in the subjunctive mood:
#+name: verb-subjunctive-inflexion-table
#+caption: Typical Verb Inflexion in the Subjunctive Mood
| <c> | | | |
| person | | Subj. Pres. | Subj. Past |
|--------+---+-------------+------------|
| 1s | | -ir | -t |
| 2s | | -ir | -t |
| 3s | | -ir | -t |
| 1p | | -im | -um |
| 2p | | -ið | -uð |
| 3p | | -ið | -uð |
As you can see, the subjunctive past form of verbs is identical to
their indicative past form, as shown below.
#+name: verb-inflexion-past-example
#+caption: Indicative and Subjunctive Past Inflexion of /far(a)/ and /berja/
| person | | far | berja |
|--------+---+-------+--------|
| 1s | | fert | berjat |
| 2s | | fert | berjat |
| 3s | | fert | berjat |
| 1p | | farum | berjum |
| 2p | | faruð | berjuð |
| 3p | | faruð | berjuð |
**** Perfect
The perfect aspect in Eittlandic is relatively similar to the modern
past form of the language. It also uses the verbs /ver/ and /hav/ before
the verb, which both agree in number, tense, and mood instead of the
main verb which appears in its participle form. The present participle
is used when the event relates to the present or the future, while the
past participle is used when the event relates to a time in the past.
It also uses the verbs /ver/ and /hav/ before
the verb, which both agree in number, tense, and mood instead of the
main verb. The latter, on the other hand, appears in its participle
form, present or past depending on whether the action is happening or
will happen, or if it happened in the past.
#+html: ::: tip Example
- Hann haft sovin, þá kunn hann kom
He had slept, thus he could come
| han-n | haft | sov-in | þá | kunn | han-n | kom |
| 3sm.NOM | have.3s.PST.IND | sleep-PST.PART | thus | can.3s.PST.IND | 3sm.NOM | come |
- Ér havum lesit bókan í dag
We have read the book today
| ér | hav-um | les-and | bók-an | í dag |
| 1p.NOM | have-1p.PRES.IND | read-PRES.PART | book-DEF.ART | today |
#+html: :::
**** Future :noexport:
**** Passive
The passive voice, inherited from the /-sk/ form in Old Norse, has some
more regular declension than the other moods. However, this is the
last declension where we can still see the remains of the distinction
between strong and weak verbs inherited from Old Norse.
#+name: passive-declension-table
#+caption: Strong and Weak Verb Inflexion for the Indicative Present and Past in Passive Voice
| <c> | | | |
| person | | Strong | Weak |
|--------+---+----------+-------------|
| 1s | | -umk | -umk |
| 2s | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
| 3s | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
| 1p | | -umk | -umk |
| 2p | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
| 3p | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk |
#+name: passive-example-table
#+caption: Example of passive with /far/ and /berja/
| person | | far | berja |
|--------+---+--------+-----------|
| 1s | | ferumk | berjumk |
| 2s | | ferisk | berjaðisk |
| 3s | | ferisk | berjaðisk |
| 1p | | farumk | berjumk |
| 2p | | farask | berjaðisk |
| 3p | | farask | berjaðisk |
Due to this uniformization of the passive voice in Eittlandic,
Eittlanders began using the verbs /ver(a)/ and /hav(a)/ (respectively /to
be/ and /to have/) as auxiliaries preceding the verb in order to convey
the subject, tense, and mood agreement. The verb /ver(a)/ is most often
used in active verbs, while the verb /hav(a)/ is generally used with
stative verbs. While all verbs have a default auxiliary, such as
/ver(a)/ for a verb like /et(a)/ (/to eat/), the speaker may choose to use
the other auxiliary in order to increase or decrease the agency of the
semantic agent (not the syntactic agent), even if it is not present in
the sentence.
#+html: ::: tip Example
- Ek var brennumk mik
| ek | var | brenn-umk | mik |
| 1s.NOM | be.1s.IND.PST | burn-1s.PAS | 1s.ACC |
/I burnt myself/
- Ek hav brennumk mik
| ek | hav | brenn-umk | mik |
| 1s.NOM | have.1s.IND.PST | burn-1s.PAS | 1s.ACC |
/I got burnt/
#+html: :::
**** Progressive
The progressive mood is generally used to express an ongoing action at
the time of speech. Note that its usage is a bit different from
English, as Eittlandic progressive is rarer in spoken Eittlandic and
even rarer in written Eittlandic. It is generally used to disambiguate
a sentence that could be either indicative or progressive, but is
usually omitted when the speaker feels like the progressive mood
should be obvious enough.
To mark the progressive, the word /ná/ is placed just after the verb,
without any other word between them.
#+html: ::: tip Example
- Ér kannum hléð vit? Nei, ek etar.
Can we talk? Nah, I’m eating
| ér | kann-um | hléð | vit |
| 1P.NOM | can-1P.PRES.IND | talk | Q |
| nei | ek | et-ar |
| no | 1S.NOM | eat-1S.PRES.IND |
- Hvat gerar þú í Sunsdag? Ek les bøk, nem hlustar ná ek tonlist.
What do you do on Sundays? I read books, but (right now) I’m
listening to music
| hvat | ger-ar | þú | í | Sunsdag |
| what.NOM | do-2s.PRES.IND | 2s.NOM | on | Sunday.PL.DAT |
| ek | les | bøk |
| 1s.NOM | read.1s.PRES.IND | book.PL.ACC |
| nem | hlust-ar | ná | ek | tonlist |
| but | listen-1s.PRES.IND | PROG | 1s.NOM | music.ACC |
#+html: :::
**** Conditional
The conditional mood allows speakers of Eittlandic to speak about
conditional events while marking them as such. This translates into
several strategies.
The first strategy adds /-(u)sk(a)-/ between the verb root and its
indicative declension. It marks conditionals the speakers estimates to
be unlikely.
#+html: ::: tip Example
Ef þú gefuskar mér ein fisk, ér ét þat
If you somehow give me a fish, we’ll eat it
#+html: :::
**** Causative :noexport:
**** Jussive
The jussive is percieved as a more subtle, more formal form of the
[[file:./grammar.md#imperative][imperative]]. It is formed by adding /-(i)l/ at the end of the verbal
root.
#+html: ::: tip Example
Etal matin þín
Please eat your food.
| eta-l | mat-inn | þín |
| eat-JUS | food-DEF.ACC | 2s.GEN |
#+html: :::
**** Optative :noexport:
**** Dubitative
The dubitative mood in Eittlandic is a mood used by the speaker to
express doubt or uncertainty. It is formed by inserting /-(a)kki/
between the verbal root and the indicative declension. It translates
to this declension table:
#+name: verb-dubitative-inflexion-table
#+caption: Typical Verb Inflexion
| <c> | | | |
| person | | Ind. Pres. | Ind. Past |
|--------+---+------------+-----------|
| 1s | | -(a)kkir | -(a)kkit |
| 2s | | -(a)kkir | -(a)kkit |
| 3s | | -(a)kkir | -(a)kkit |
| 1p | | -(a)kkim | -(a)kkum |
| 2p | | -(a)kkið | -(a)kkuð |
| 3p | | -(a)kkið | -(a)kkuð |
#+html: ::: tip Example
Hann kømakkir í dag
He might not come today
| Hann | køm-akkir | í dag |
| 3sm.NOM | come-3s.DUB.PRES | today |
#+html: :::
*** Verbs :noexport:
Eittlandic, as most if not all North Germanic language, is a V2
language. This implies that in most cases, the verb in sentences will
come at the second position, possibly moving its subject right between
the verb itself and the rest of the verb phrase. The only exception to
this are questions and the use of imperative. More on that later.
Since Early Old Norse, Eittlandic evolved its verb both towards
simplification on one hand, making the verb endings a lot more regular
and predictable, and complexification with the addition of new moods
and tenses.
**** Verbal Structure :noexport: **** Verbal Structure :noexport:
**** Verbal Derivations :noexport: **** Verbal Derivations :noexport:
**** Verbal Inflexions **** Verbal Inflexions
Verbs in Eittlandic agree with their subject in person and number, Verbs in Eittlandic agree with their subject in person and number,
though it lost a lot of its diversity Old Norse had. It also varies though it lost a lot of its diversity Old Norse had. It also varies
depending on the tense, mood, and aspect of the verbal sentence. The depending on the tense, mood, and aspect of the verbal sentence. The
examples are given using the verbs /far(a)/ (/to go/, a former strong examples are given using the verbs /far(a)/ (/to go/, a strong verb), and
verb), and /berja/ (/to beat/, a former weak verb). /berja/ (/to beat/, a weak verb).
#+name: verb-inflexion-table #+name: verb-inflexion-table
#+caption: Typical Verb Inflexion #+caption: Typical Verb Inflexion
@ -265,7 +588,7 @@ Imperative, on the other hand, only works with the second person in
the present tense by appending an /-sk/ at the end of the infinitive of the present tense by appending an /-sk/ at the end of the infinitive of
the verb. the verb.
Due to this uniformisation of the passive voice in Eittlandic, Due to this uniformization of the passive voice in Eittlandic,
Eittlanders began using the verbs /ver(a)/ and /hav(a)/ (respectively /to Eittlanders began using the verbs /ver(a)/ and /hav(a)/ (respectively /to
be/ and /to have/) as auxiliaries preceding the verb in order to convey be/ and /to have/) as auxiliaries preceding the verb in order to convey
the subject, tense, and mood agreement. The verb /ver(a)/ is most often the subject, tense, and mood agreement. The verb /ver(a)/ is most often
@ -563,7 +886,7 @@ words in English.
# - If so, what are the cases? (The functions of the cases will be # - If so, what are the cases? (The functions of the cases will be
# elaborated in lat # elaborated in lat
**** Cases in Modern Eittlandic **** Cases in Modern Eittlandic
Although seldom visible, as described in [[file:./syntax.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], cases still Although seldom visible, as described in [[file:grammar.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], cases still
remain part of the Eittlandic grammar, expressed through its syntax remain part of the Eittlandic grammar, expressed through its syntax
rather than explicit marking on its nouns and adjectives. Four rather than explicit marking on its nouns and adjectives. Four
different grammatical cases exist in this language: the *nominative*, different grammatical cases exist in this language: the *nominative*,
@ -730,7 +1053,7 @@ an article must accompany it, except for indefinite plural nouns.
The indefinite article is /einn/, the same term as /one/ in Eittlandic. It The indefinite article is /einn/, the same term as /one/ in Eittlandic. It
agrees in declension with its noun, though it is to be noted its agrees in declension with its noun, though it is to be noted its
declension is irregular, as seen in table below. Similarly, other declension is irregular, as seen in table below. Similarly, other
numerals have declensions as discussed in [[file:word-structure-and-classes.md#numerals][Word Classes: Numerals]]. numerals have declensions as discussed in [[file:grammar.md#numerals][Word Classes: Numerals]].
#+name: tbl:declension-einn #+name: tbl:declension-einn
| | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | | | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
|------+-----------+----------+--------| |------+-----------+----------+--------|
@ -769,13 +1092,13 @@ with strong masculine or feminine words (or as established before,
strong common) or with strong neuter and weak nouns. strong common) or with strong neuter and weak nouns.
The use of definite articles with nouns is further discussed in The use of definite articles with nouns is further discussed in
[[file:./syntax.md#definiteness][Definiteness]]. [[file:grammar.md#definiteness][Definiteness]].
*** Definiteness *** Definiteness
Definiteness in Eittlandic serves multiple purposes. Its most obvious Definiteness in Eittlandic serves multiple purposes. Its most obvious
one is to distinguish between an indefinite and a definite entity, as one is to distinguish between an indefinite and a definite entity, as
in English /a dog/ or /the dog/, respectively /einn hundr/ and /hundinn/, as in English /a dog/ or /the dog/, respectively /einn hundr/ and /hundinn/, as
discussed in [[file:./syntax.md#articles-and-demonstratives][Articles and Demonstratives]]. discussed in [[file:grammar.md#articles-and-demonstratives][Articles and Demonstratives]].
However, definiteness is also necessary with suffixed possessives and However, definiteness is also necessary with suffixed possessives and
demonstrative. demonstrative.
@ -802,7 +1125,7 @@ Eittlandic inherited from Old Norse a gender system divided into three
genders: male, female, and neuter. Although the number of elements genders: male, female, and neuter. Although the number of elements
marking it declined during its evolution, Eittlandic still marks marking it declined during its evolution, Eittlandic still marks
gender in its strong nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and to a certain gender in its strong nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and to a certain
degree in its articles. However, as mentioned in [[file:./syntax.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], case degree in its articles. However, as mentioned in [[file:grammar.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], case
marking and by extensions gender marking is slowly disappearing in marking and by extensions gender marking is slowly disappearing in
Modern Eittlandic nouns and adjectives. Modern Eittlandic nouns and adjectives.