diff --git a/docs/eittlandic/country.org b/docs/eittlandic/country.org index 4b4fff3..512d8d0 100644 --- a/docs/eittlandic/country.org +++ b/docs/eittlandic/country.org @@ -402,17 +402,17 @@ commerce between Europe and Northern America with its two major ports, Kóparvall and Tvinnár. **** Women’s right to vote -On August 22nd 1902, a billed written by the House of the People led -by the Labourer’s Party is ratified by the High King. It gives women -the right to vote in any election open to the Eittlandic people. On -March 15th 1915, a second law written by the Labourer’s Party is -ratified by the High King, giving women the right to be elected at the -House of the People while noblewomen got the right to inherit the -title of Jarl, making them eligible to the House of the Land. Quickly -after, Kari Niallsdóttr became the first woman ever elected to the -House of the People during the general election of September 1905, -while Ása Sigríðsdóttr became the first woman to enter the House of -the Land in 1934. +On August 22nd 1902, a bill written by the House of the People led by +the Labourer’s Party is ratified by the High King. It gives women the +right to vote in any election open to the Eittlandic people. On March +15th 1915, a second law written by the Labourer’s Party is ratified by +the High King, giving women the right to be elected at the House of +the People while noblewomen got the right to inherit the title of +Jarl, making them eligible to the House of the Land. Quickly after, +Kari Niallsdóttr became the first woman ever elected to the House of +the People during the general election of September 1905, while Ása +Sigríðsdóttr became the first woman to enter the House of the Land +in 1934. **** World War One When World War I started, Eittland stated their neutrality regarding @@ -510,11 +510,11 @@ April 1983. **** Computer Sciences Pioneering Out of personal interest, the then Co-King of Ðeberget Ragnarr Sigurðsbróðr asked the Dean of the Royal University of Eittland -(/Konunglig Eittlandsuniversitat/) to open as quickly as possible a lab +(/Konunglig Eittlandsuniversitet/) to open as quickly as possible a lab focused on the development of computers and computer sciences. While the Co-King holds no power and is purely a ceremonial title, the Dean obliged and founded the first Eittlandic computer science laboratory, -the /Konunglig Eittlandsuniversitatitsvétalsráðuneyt/ (litt. “Royal +the /Konunglig Eittlandsuniversitetitsvétalsráðuneyt/ (litt. “Royal Eittland’s University’s Computer Department”), or /Vétalsráðuneyt/ for short. This accompanied a new law raising the annual budget allocated to universities in Eittland to 9% of the nation’s GDP. As the first @@ -523,7 +523,7 @@ even becoming one of the leading laboratories along with MIT, Bell Labs and CERN, numerous other laboratories both public and private appeared in Eittland. Nowadays, the /Vétalsráðuneyt/ is still regarded as one of the top research laboratories and university department in -Eittland, and the /Konunglig Eittlandsuniversitat/ often ranks in the +Eittland, and the /Konunglig Eittlandsuniversitet/ often ranks in the top five universities in the world regarding computer science. What is now known as the Internet is born of a mix of ARPANET, the diff --git a/docs/eittlandic/dictionary.org b/docs/eittlandic/dictionary.org index ebedd32..978d294 100644 --- a/docs/eittlandic/dictionary.org +++ b/docs/eittlandic/dictionary.org @@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ some abbreviations you should keep in mind: - imp :: imperative - ind :: indicative - interr :: interrogative +- iv :: irregular verb - m :: masculine - ME :: Middle Eittlandic - n :: neuter @@ -28,7 +29,9 @@ some abbreviations you should keep in mind: - Nor :: Norwegian (Nynork if no dialect is specified) - num :: numeral - OE :: Old Eittlandic +- OI :: Old Icelandic - ON :: Old Norse +- pas :: passive - pl :: plural - prep :: preposition - pret :: preterite @@ -36,6 +39,7 @@ some abbreviations you should keep in mind: - sc :: strong common - sg :: singular - sn :: strong neuter +- stg :: strong - sv :: strong verb - Swe :: Swedish - wk :: weak @@ -71,10 +75,23 @@ it is indicated between parenthesis in the accusative case, preceeded by a dash, as in /dag(a-n)/. ** A +*** ikkí +interj. {{{phon(iχe)}}} + +1. How cold! Brr! + +From an unkwnown Greenlandic language, compare with modern Greenlandic /ikkii/. ** Á +*** áng +interj. {{{phon(ɛŋ)}}} -** Æ +1. positive counter-factual, see the [[file:./grammar.md#questions][questions]] section of the grammar + +This word does not have a clear origin, however it is supposed it was +borrowed early on from an Eskaleut language that may have been spoken +by the island’s initial inhabitants. Compare modern-day Aleut /aang/ and +Proto-Eskimoan /*aa/ or /*ii/. ** B *** bræðr @@ -118,7 +135,6 @@ sf. {{{phon(bø̀k)}}} See [[file:dictionary.md#bok(r)][/bók/]] ** C - ** D *** djúp adj. {{{phon(dʒòp)}}}, from ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/d.php#dj%C3%BApr][djúpr]] @@ -146,8 +162,6 @@ sf. {{{phon(dɔtʃ)}}}, from ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/d.php#d%C3%B3ttir][ | | Gen. | dóttr | dœtr | | | Dat. | dótt | dœttum | -** Đ - ** E *** edd(a-t) wf. {{{phon(e:d)}}}, from ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/e.php#edda][edda]] @@ -178,8 +192,13 @@ ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/e.php#einn][einn]], and ON [[https://old-norse.n | | Gen. | eittlands | | | Dat. | eittland | -** É +*** ell +{{{phon(elː)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ella#Old_Norse][ella]] +1. (adv.) else, or, otherwise +2. (conj.) or + +** É ** F *** fað m. {{{phon(fað)}}}, from ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/f.php#fa%C3%B0ir][faðir]] @@ -233,37 +252,68 @@ n. {{{phon(jɔʊð)}}}, from ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/g.php#gau%C3%B0][ga 1. a quarrel 2. a heated debate /(informal)/ -*** gegn -adv. {{{phon(jeɡn̩)}}} - -1. against, opposing -*** gjøf -f. {{{phon(jøv)}}} +*** gef +f. {{{phon(jev)}}}, from Early Old Norse [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gj%C7%ABf#Old_Norse][gef]] 1. gift, present +*** gegn +adv. {{{phon(jeɡn̩)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gegn#Old_Norse][gegn]] + +1. against, opposing + ** H +*** hav(a) +iv. {{{phon(haβ)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hafa#Old_Norse][hafa]] + +1. to have +2. stative auxilliary + +**** Inflexions +- infinitive :: hav +- imperative :: hav (except 2p /haft/) +- imperative passive voice :: hafsk (except 1p /havumsk/) +- present participle :: havand +- past participle :: hafr + +| | Indicative Present | Subjunctive Present | Indicative Past | Subjunctive Past | +|----+--------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------------| +| 1s | hav | hav | haft | haft | +| 2s | havir | havir | haftir | haftir | +| 3s | havir | hav | haft | haft | +| 1p | havum | havim | haft | haft | +| 2p | haft | haft | haftuð | haftið | +| 3p | hav | hav | haft | haft | + +Note that there is no difference between singular and plural when using hav(a) in the passive voice. +| | Indicative Present | Subjunctive Present | Indicative Past | Subjunctive Past | +|---+---------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------------| +| 1 | havumk | havumk | havumk | heðumk | +| 2 | hafsk | havisk | havisk | heðisk | +| 3 | hafsk | havisk | havisk | heðisk | + *** heils(a-t) -wn.f. {{{phon(hɑ:ɪls)}}} +wn.f. {{{phon(hɑ:ɪls)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/heilsa#Old_Norse][heilsa]] 1. health *** hjól -n. {{{phon(çɔl)}}} +n. {{{phon(çɔl)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hj%C3%B3l#Old_Norse][hjól]] 1. wheel *** hlóð -n. {{{phon(l̥ɔð)}}} +n. {{{phon(l̥ɔð)}}}, from ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/h.php#hl%C3%B3%C3%B0][hlóð]] 1. hearth 2. living room *** hneis(a-t) -wn.f. {{{phon(n̥ɑ:ɪs)}}} +wn.f. {{{phon(n̥ɑ:ɪs)}}}, from ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/h.php#hneisa][hneisa]] -1. shame, disgrace -2. social isolation +1. shame, disgrace, fear +2. reclusion (out of shame or out of fear) +3. social isolation *** hneising n. {{{phon(n̥ɑɪsinɡ)}}} @@ -272,38 +322,59 @@ n. {{{phon(n̥ɑɪsinɡ)}}} 2. (modern) shut-in, hikikomori *** hnjós(a) -v. {{{phon(ɲ̥ɔ̀ːs)}}} +v. {{{phon(ɲ̥ɔ̀ːs)}}}, from ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/h.php#hnj%C3%B3sa][hnjósa]] 1. to sneeze *** hrifs -n. {{{phon(r̥ivs)}}} +n. {{{phon(r̥ivs)}}}, from ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/h.php#hrifs][hrifs]] 1. assault, mugging + +*** hvar +pron. {{{phon(ʍar)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hvar#Old_Norse][hvar]] + +1. who + *** hvat -adv. {{{phon(ʍɑt)}}} +adv. {{{phon(ʍɑt)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hvat#Old_Norse][hvat]] 1. what *** hví -adv. {{{phon(ʍè)}}} +adv. {{{phon(ʍè)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hv%C3%AD#Old_Norse][hví]] 1. why ** I - ** Í - ** J +*** já +{{{phon(jɛ)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/j%C3%A1#Old_Norse][já]] + +1. (adv) yes +2. (interj) yes (as an exclamation of joy) ** K -*** kaup -n. {{{phon(kɔp)}}} +*** kaup(a) +n. {{{phon(kɔp)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kaupa#Old_Norse][kaupa]] 1. commerce 2. bargain, barter -*** konung -sn.m. {{{phon(ˈkonoŋ)}}} +*** kék +adj. {{{phon(kɛk)}}} + +1. gray (hair colour) + +Probably from a Greenlandic dialect, compare to West Greenlandic /qeeq/ + +*** kom(a) +sv. {{{phon(kom)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/koma#Old_Norse][koma]] + +1. to come + +*** konungr +sn.m. {{{phon(ˈkonoŋ)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/konungr#Old_Norse][konungr]] 1. king @@ -314,10 +385,14 @@ sn.m. {{{phon(ˈkonoŋ)}}} 2. adj. royal ** L +*** land +n. {{{phon(land)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/land#Old_Norse][land]] + +1. land ** M -*** myrɡun -m. {{{phon(ˈmyrɡun)}}} +*** myrɡunn +m. {{{phon(ˈmyrɡunː)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/myrginn#Old_Norse][myrgunn]] 1. morning, aurora @@ -332,17 +407,17 @@ See also [[file:./dictionary.md#undirland][undirland]] ** N *** ná -adv. {{{phon(nɛ̀)}}} +adv. {{{phon(nɛ̀)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/n%C3%A1#Old_Norse][ná]] 1. now #+html: ::: tip Example - Ná kom ek frá universitatit. + Ná kom ek frá universitetit. I come from the university now. #+html: ::: 2. intensifier, used at the end of sentences #+html: ::: tip Example - Ek kom frá universitatit ná! + Ek kom frá universitetit ná! - I come from the university (you know) or @@ -350,31 +425,187 @@ adv. {{{phon(nɛ̀)}}} #+html: ::: 3. progressive marker when placed right after the verb #+html: ::: tip Example - Ek kom ná frá universitatit. + Ek kom ná frá universitetit. I’m coming from the university. #+html: ::: -*** noregsúlf -m. {{{phon(ˈnorejsˌòlv)}}} +*** náng +interj. {{{phon(nɛŋ)}}} + +1. negative counter-factual, see the [[file:./grammar.md#questions][questions]] section of the grammar + +This word does not have a clear origin, however it is supposed it was +borrowed early on from an Eskaleut language that may have been spoken +by the island’s initial inhabitants. Compare Aleut /nangaa/ and +Proto-Eskimoan /*nanka/, and Western Greenlandic /naagga/. + +*** nei +{{{phon(nɑɪ)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nei#Old_Norse][nei]] + +1. (adv.) no +2. (interj) no, as an exclamation of panic, regret + +*** norvegsúlf(r) +m. {{{phon(ˈnorβejsˌòlv)}}}, from ON /Noregs/ (genitive of ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/n.php#noregr][Noregr]]) and ON +[[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ulfr#Old_Norse][úlfr]] 1. wolf, litt. Norway’s wolf. - Wolves do not naturally live in Eittland. Their only relatives - introduced to the island were dogs and wolf-dogs, and the latter - inherited the simpler /úlfr/ term. Noun composed by Old Norse /noregs/ - (genitive of /Noregr/, /Norway/) and /úlfr/. +Wolves do not naturally live in Eittland. Their only relatives +introduced to the island were dogs and wolf-dogs, and the latter +inherited the simpler /úlfr/ term. Noun composed by Old Norse /noregs/ +(genitive of /Noregr/, /Norway/) and /úlfr/. ** O - ** Ó -*** óglaðr / óglœðr -adj. {{{phon(ˈɔ̀ɡʲœðr̩)}}} +*** óglað(r) +adj. {{{phon(ˈɔ̀ɡʲœð)}}}, from ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/oo.php#%C3%B3gla%C3%B0r][óglaðr]] 1. very sad, depressed, miserable -** Ø +** P +*** pengvin +n. {{{phon(ˈpeŋβen)}}}, from French [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pingouin#French][pingouin]] through Danish [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pingvin#Danish][pingvin]] +1. penguin + +** R +*** ráðuneyt(i) +wn.m. {{{phon(ˈrɛ̀ðoˌnœʏt)}}}, from OI [[https://old-norse.net/html/r.php#r%C3%A1%C3%B0uneyti][ráðuneyti]] + +1. Ministry +2. department + +** S +*** sitj(a) +v. {{{phon(siːtʃ)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sitja#Old_Norse][sitja]] + +1. to sit +2. to represent (politics) + +*** sjá +v. {{{phon(ʃɛ̀)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sj%C3%A1#Old_Norse][sjá]] + +1. to see +2. to understand + +*** skilj(a) +v. {{{phon(ʃkiːʎ)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/skilja#Old_Norse][skilja]] + +1. to differenciate +2. to segregate, to separate +3. to understand a difference + +*** snjór +m. {{{phon(sɲɔ̀r)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/snj%C3%B3r#Old_Norse][snjór]] + +1. snow + +*** styrsamhald(i) +n. {{{phon(ˈʃtyrˌsamhald)}}}, from Old Norse [[https://old-norse.net/html/s.php#styrr][styrr]] (stir, battle) and +[[https://old-norse.net/html/s.php#samheldi][samhaldi]] (a holding together, unity). + +1. military batallion +2. mitilary unit, group + +** T +*** tal(a) +wn.f. {{{phon(tal)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tala#Old_Norse][tala]] + +1. numbers + +*** tren +wn.n. {{{phon(tren)}}}, from English [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/train#English][train]] + +1. train + +** U +*** undir +adj. {{{phon(undir)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/undir#Old_Norse][undir]] + +1. under, underneath + +Can only be used with accusative or dative + +*** undirland +wn.n. {{{phon(ˈundirˌland)}}}, calque of English “underground” using [[file:./dictionary.md#undir][undir]] and [[file:./dictionary.md#land][land]] + +1. underground, subway + +See also [[file:./dictionary.md#metr-o][metr(o)]] + +*** universitet +wn.n. {{{phon(oneˈβersetet)}}}, from German [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A4t#German][Universität]] + +1. university + +*** uppá +prep. {{{phon(ˈuɸə̀)}}}, from ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/u.php#upp%C3%A1][uppá]] + +1. upon + +** Ú +*** úlf(r) +m. {{{phon(òlv)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ulfr][úlfr]] + +1. wolf-dog. See also /noregsúlfr/. + +** V +*** veisheit +wn.f. {{{phon(ˈβɑɪshɑɪt)}}}, from German [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Weisheit#German][Weisheit]], see also [[file:./dictionary.md#visk-a][visk(a)]] + +1. knowledge or wisdom +2. insight + +*** ver(a) +iv. {{{phon(βer)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vera#Old_Norse][vera]] + +1. to be +2. active auxilliary + +**** Inflexions +- infinitive :: ver +- imperative :: ver +- present participle :: verand +- past participle :: vert + +| | Indicative Present | Subjunctive Present | Indicative Past | Subjunctive Past | +|----+--------------------+---------------------+-----------------+------------------| +| 1s | em | sé | var | vár | +| 2s | ert | sér | vart | vár | +| 3s | er | sé | var | vár | +| 1p | er | sé | var | vár | +| 2p | eruð | séð | varð | várið | +| 3p | er | sé | var | vár | + +*** vél +sc.f. {{{phon(βɛl)}}}, from ON [[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/v%C3%A9l#Old_Norse][vél]] + +1. machine, craft + +*** vétal(a) +wn.f. {{{phon(ˈβɛ̀tal)}}}, portemanteau of [[file:./dictionary.md#vel][vél]] and [[file:./dictionary.md#tal-a][tal(a)]] + +1. computer + +*** vit +interj. {{{phon(βit)}}} + +1. question marker, see [[file:./grammar.md#yes-no-questions][yes/no questions]], probably from a Greenlandic + dialect, see [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenlandic_language#Indicative_and_interrogative_moods][Greenlandic interrogative moods]]. + +*** visk(a) +f. {{{phon(βiʃk)}}}, from ON [[https://old-norse.net/html/v.php#vizka][vizka]] + +1. practical knowledge or wisdom, acquired from experience + +See [[file:./dictionary.md#veisheit][veisheit]] for a more general term for /wisdow/ + +** Y +** Ý +** Z +** Ø ** Œ *** Œgir / Œger m. {{{phon(ˈœjer)}}} @@ -382,126 +613,5 @@ m. {{{phon(ˈœjer)}}} 1. A mythical beast residing in the forests of the western Eittlandic fjords. -** P -*** pengvin / pengven -n. {{{phon(ˈpeŋβen)}}} - -1. penguin - -From English *penguin* - -** Q - -** R -*** ráðuneyt -wn.m. {{{phon(ˈrɛ̀ðoˌnœʏt)}}} - -1. Ministry -2. department - -** S -*** sitj(a) -v. {{{phon(siːtʃ)}}} - -1. to sit -2. to represent (politics) - -*** sjá -v. {{{phon(ʃɛ̀)}}} - -1. to see -2. to understand - -*** skilj(a) -v. {{{phon(ʃkiːʎ)}}} - -1. to differenciate -2. to segregate, to separate -3. to understand a difference - -*** snjór -m. {{{phon(sɲɔ̀r)}}} - -1. snow - -*** styrsamhald -n. {{{phon(ˈʃtyrˌsamhald)}}} - -1. military batallion -2. mitilary unit, group - -From Old Norse *styrr* (stir, battle) and *samhald* (a holding together, -unity). - -** T -*** tal(a) -wn.f. {{{phon(tal)}}} - -1. numbers - -*** tren -wn.n. {{{phon(tren)}}} - -1. train - +** Đ ** Þ - -** U - -*** undir -adj. {{{phon(undir)}}} - -1. under, underneath - -Can only be used with accusative or dative - -*** undirland -wn.n. {{{phon(ˈundirˌland)}}}, calque of English “underground” - -1. underground, subway - -See also [[file:./dictionary.md#metr-o][metr(o)]] - -*** universitat -wn.n. {{{phon(oneˈβersetat)}}} - -1. university - -*** uppá -prep. {{{phon(ˈupɸə̀)}}} - -1. upon - -** Ú -*** úlf -m. {{{phon(òlv)}}} - -1. wolf-dog. See also /noregsúlfr/. - -** V -*** veisheit -wn.f. {{{phon(ˈβɑɪshɑɪt)}}} - -1. knowledge or wisdom. From German /Weisheit/. See also /vizka/ - -*** vél -sc.f. - -1. machine, craft - -*** vétal -wn.f. {{{phon(ˈβɛ̀tal)}}} - -1. computer - -*** visk(a) -f. {{{phon(βiːʃk)}}} - -1. practical knowledge or wisdom, acquired from experience -See /veisheit/ for a more general term for /wisdow/ - -** Y - -** Ý - -** Z diff --git a/docs/eittlandic/grammar.org b/docs/eittlandic/grammar.org index f07937f..c67e7ac 100644 --- a/docs/eittlandic/grammar.org +++ b/docs/eittlandic/grammar.org @@ -12,21 +12,80 @@ **** Countables and Uncountables :noexport: **** Proper Nouns :noexport: -*** Pronouns and Anaphoric Clitics :noexport: +*** Pronouns and Anaphoric Clitics # - Does the language have free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics? # (These are distinct from grammatical agreement.) # - Give a chart of the free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics. + **** Personal Pronouns + +| | 1s | 2s | 1p | 2s | +|------------+-----+-----+-----+-----| +| Nominative | ek | þú | vér | ér | +| Accusative | mik | þik | oss | yðr | +| Dative | mín | þín | vár | yðr | +| Genitive | mér | þér | oss | yðr | +#+begin_center +First and second person pronouns in Eittlandic +#+end_center + +The only notable change in written form from their Early Old Norse +version is the regularization of the genitive plural second person +/yðar/ into /yðr/. Otherwise, most changes only happened regarding their +phonology as explained in [[file:./phonology.md#evolution-from-early-old-norse-to-eittlandic][the evolution from Early Old Norse to +Eittlandic]]. + +| | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | +|---------------------+-----------+----------+--------| +| Singular Nominative | hann | han | þat | +| Singular Accusative | han | han | þat | +| Singular Dative | hans | hennar | þass | +| Singular Genitive | hanum | henn | því | +|---------------------+-----------+----------+--------| +| Plural Nominative | þeir | þér | þau | +| Plural Accusative | þá | þér | þau | +| Plural Dative | þeir | þeir | þeir | +| Plural Genitive | þeim | þeim | þeim | +#+begin_center +Third person pronouns in Eittlandic +#+end_center + +Here we also have few changes from the Early Old Norse pronouns for +the third persons, singular and plural. + **** Demonstrative Pronouns **** Possessive Pronouns -*** Verbs :noexport: +Possessive pronouns in Eittlandic simply are the genitive form of the +personal pronouns shown [[file:./grammar.md#personal-pronouns][above]]. The pronoun agrees with the owner in +person and number, and in gender when the third person is used, as in +English. They have two different usage. + +The first and more formal usage, inherited from Old Norse, is to +precede the noun phrase owned by the owner with the genitive pronoun. +For instance, /mín katt/ means /my cat/ while /þeim katt/ means /their cat/ +(as shown in [[file:./grammar.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], we have no way to know if /katt/, a strong +common word, is singular or plural accusative). + +The second and more casual way to express possession is using the +definite form of a word and placing the possessive pronoun after it. +We can adapt the previous examples of /my cat/ and /their cat/ as /kattin +mín/ and /kattin þeim/. + +While these two forms provide a difference in tone, the second form is +more limited as it only allows single word noun phrases to be the +possessed element while the first allows more complex noun phrases. +The sentence /mín kattrinn komand frá heim/ (/my cat coming from home/) +would need to be modified in order to fit the second structure, such +as /kattrinn mín, hvar komr frá heim/ (/my cat, who is coming from home/). + +*** Verbs # - What are the distributional properties of verbs? # - What are the structural properties of verbs? # - What are the major subclasses of verbs? # - Describe the order of various verbal operators within the verbal # - word or verb phrase. -# - Give charts of th -# - tense/aspect/mode, etc. Indicate major allomorphic variants. +# - Give charts of the tense/aspect/mode, etc. Indicate major +# allomorphic variants. # - Are directional and/or locational notions expressed in the verb or # - verb phrase at all? # - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the @@ -39,10 +98,172 @@ # or lexically? Are there any exceptions to the general case? # - Where in the verb phrase or verbal word is this operation likely # to appear? Can it occur in more than one place? -**** Verbal Structure -**** Verbal Derivations +Eittlandic, as most if not all North Germanic language, is a V2 +language. This implies that in most cases, the verb in sentences will +come at the second position, possibly moving its subject right between +the verb itself and the rest of the verb phrase. The only exception to +this are questions and the use of imperative. More on that later. + +Since Early Old Norse, Eittlandic evolved its verb both towards +simplification on one hand, making the verb endings a lot more regular +and predictable, and complexification with the addition of new moods +and tenses. + +**** Verbal Structure :noexport: + +**** Verbal Derivations :noexport: + **** Verbal Inflexions -*** Modifiers +Verbs in Eittlandic agree with their subject in person and number, +though it lost a lot of its diversity Old Norse had. It also varies +depending on the tense, mood, and aspect of the verbal sentence. The +examples are given using the verbs /far(a)/ (/to go/, a former strong +verb), and /berja/ (/to beat/, a former weak verb). + +| | | | | | +| person | | Indicative Present | Subjunctive Present | Indicative and Subjunctive Past | +|--------+---+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------------------| +| 1s | | -r | -ir | -t | +| 2s | | -r | -ir | -t | +| 3s | | -r | -ir | -t | +| 1p | | -um | -im | -um | +| 2p | | -ið | -ið | -uð | +| 3p | | -ið | -ið | -uð | +#+begin_center +/Typical Verb Inflexion/ +#+end_center + +| person | | far | berja | +|--------+---+-------+--------| +| 1s | | ferr | berjar | +| 2s | | ferr | berjar | +| 3s | | ferr | berjar | +| 1p | | farum | berjum | +| 2p | | farið | berið | +| 3p | | farið | berið | +#+begin_center +Indicative present inflexion of /far(a)/ and /berja/ +#+end_center + +Note that the final vowel of /berja/ gets replaced with the vowel from +the inflexion, and the final /j/ also disappears when it is immediately +followed by an /i/. + +Present subjunctive has similar declensions to present indicative. + +| person | | far | berja | +|--------+---+-------+-------| +| 1s | | ferir | berir | +| 2s | | ferir | berir | +| 3s | | ferir | berir | +| 1p | | farim | berim | +| 2p | | farið | berið | +| 3p | | farið | berið | +#+begin_center +Subjunctive present inflexion of /far(a)/ and /berja/ +#+end_center + +We can see again how the /ja/ at the end of infinitive /berja/ got +replaced by the ending of subjunctive present verbs. + +The past declension is simpler as there is no difference between +indicative and subjunctive past. + +| person | | far | berja | +|--------+---+-------+--------| +| 1s | | fert | berjat | +| 2s | | fert | berjat | +| 3s | | fert | berjat | +| 1p | | farum | berjum | +| 2p | | faruð | berjuð | +| 3p | | faruð | berjuð | +#+begin_center +Indicative and subjunctive past inflexion of /far(a)/ and /berja/ +#+end_center + +The infinitive and imperative merged due to the final vowel loss, +making /far/ and /berja/ not only the infinitive form of /to go/ and /to +beat/, but also their imperative form. Present and past participles are +on the other hand made by appending /-and/ and /-it/ respectively. + +| infinitive / imperative | far | berja | +| present participle | farand | berjand | +| past participle | farit | berit | + +When it comes to the passive voice, inherited from the /-sk/ form in Old +Norse, its declension is a lot more regular. However, we’ll see the +remaining difference between strong and weak verbs. + +| | | | | +| person | | Strong | Weak | +|--------+---+----------+-------------| +| 1s | | -umk | -umk | +| 2s | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk | +| 3s | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk | +| 1p | | -umk | -umk | +| 2p | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk | +| 3p | | -(a/i)sk | -(ð/d/t)isk | +#+begin_center +/Strong and Weak Verb Inflexion for the Indicative Present and Past in Passive Voice/ +#+end_center + +| person | | far | berja | +|--------+---+--------+-----------| +| 1s | | ferumk | berjumk | +| 2s | | ferisk | berjaðisk | +| 3s | | ferisk | berjaðisk | +| 1p | | farask | berjaðisk | +| 2p | | farask | berjaðisk | +| 3p | | farask | berjaðisk | + +There is only one minor difference for the subjunctive mood: both the +first person singular and plural change to /-imk/ instead of /-umk/. +Imperative, on the other hand, only works with the second person in +the present tense by appending an /-sk/ at the end of the infinitive of +the verb. + +Due to this uniformisation of the passive voice in Eittlandic, +Eittlanders began using the verbs /ver(a)/ and /hav(a)/ (respectively /to +be/ and /to have/) as auxilliaries preceeding the verb in order to convey +the subject, tense, and mood agreement. The verb /ver(a)/ is most often +used in active verbs, while the verb /hav(a)/ is generally used with +stative verbs. While all verbs have a default auxilliary, such as +/ver(a)/ for a verb like /et(a)/ (/to eat/), the speaker may choose to use +the other auxilliary in order to increase or decrease the agency of +the semantic agent (not the syntactic agent), even if it is not +present in the sentence. +#+html: ::: tip Example +- Ek var brennumk mik + | ek | var | brenn-umk | mik | + | 1s.NOM | be.1s.IND.PST | burn-1s.PAS | 1s.ACC | + /I burnt myself/ +- Ek hav brennumk mik + | ek | hav | brenn-umk | mik | + | 1s.NOM | have.1s.IND.PST | burn-1s.PAS | 1s.ACC | + /I got burnt/ +#+html: ::: + +The verbs /var(a)/ and /hav(a)/ are irregular verbs that do not follow the +same inflexion rules. For a list of their inflexion, see their +dictionary entry ([[file:./dictionary.md#ver-a][ver(a)]] and [[file:./dictionary.md#hav-a][hav(a)]]). + +The passive voice inherits from the Old Norse mediopassive voice. It +is often used to promote a semantic patient to a syntactic agent and +to demote a semantic agent to a syntactic oblique, sometimes even +completely removing it from the sentence. + +#+html: ::: tip Example +- Maðrinn dragt fiskin frá vatnin + | maðr-inn | drag-t | fisk-in | frá | vatn-in | + | man.NOM-DEF.NOM | drag-IND.PST | fish-DEF.ACC | from | water-DEF.DAT | + The man fished the fish from the water +- Fiskinn var dragask frá vatnin + | Fiskr-inn | var | drag-ask | frá | vatn-in | + | fish.NOM-DEF.NOM | be.3s.IND.PST | drag-STG.PAS | from | water-DEF.DAT | + The fish was fished from the water +#+html: ::: + +*** Modifiers :noexport: # - If you posit a morphosyntactic category of adjectives, give # evidence for not grouping theseforms with the verbs or nouns. What # characterizes a form as being an adjective in this language? @@ -58,7 +279,7 @@ # class, ...)? **** Descriptive Adjectives :noexport: **** Non-Numeral Quantifiers :noexport: -**** Numerals +**** Numerals :noexport: *** Adverbs :noexport: # - What characterikes a form as being an adverb in this language? If @@ -72,26 +293,26 @@ # complement-taking (matrix) verbs? *** Adpositions :noexport: *** Grammatical Particules :noexport: -** Constituants Order Typology :noexport: -*** Constituants Order in Main Clauses +** Constituants Order Typology +*** Constituants Order in Main Clauses :noexport: # - What is the neutral order of free elements in the unit? # - Are there variations? # - How do the variant orders function? # - Specific to the main clause constituent order: What is the # pragmatically neutral order of constituents (A/S, P, and V) in # basic clauses of the language? -*** Constituants Order in Nominal Clauses +*** Constituants Order in Nominal Clauses :noexport: # - Describe the order(s) of elements in the noun phrase. -*** Constituants Order in Verbal Clauses +*** Constituants Order in Verbal Clauses :noexport: # - Where do auxliari # verb? # - Where do verb-phrase adverbs occur with respect to the verb and # auxiliaries? -*** Adpositional Phrases +*** Adpositional Phrases :noexport: # - Is the language dominantly prepositional or post-positional? Give # examples. # - Do many adpositions come from nouns or verbs? -*** Comparatives +*** Comparatives :noexport: # - Does the language have one or more grammaticalized comparative # constructions? If so, what is the order of the standard, the # marker and the quality by which an item is compared to the @@ -100,6 +321,100 @@ # - In yes/no questions, if there is a question particle, where does # it occur? # - In information qu +Questions in Eittlandic are formed by inverting the syntactic subject +with its verb in a normal sentence. For example, the sentence /han komr +í dag með faðin hans/ (/he’s coming today with his father/) becomes a +question when inverting /han/ and /komr/. + +**** Yes/No questions +Yes/no questions are generally answered by /já/ or /nei/ (/yes/ or /no/ +respectively), sometimes with a repeat of the core of the sentence to +confirm the anwser. + +#+html: ::: tip Example +- Komr han í dag með faðin hans? + + Is he coming today with his father? + +- Nei, han komr eig + + No, he’s not coming +or +- Já, han komr + + Yes, he’s coming +#+html: ::: + +The interjections /já/ and /nei/ are often ambiguous when replying to a +question employing a negative verb and are often avoided; Eittlanders +will prefer to reply with part of or the entirety of the question with +either a negative marker or not to confirm or deny the assumption of +the question. + +#+html: ::: tip Example +- Komr han eig í dag? + + Is he not coming today? + +- Han komr eig + + He’s not coming +or +- Han komr +#+html: ::: + +Another strategy, a lot more common when replying to negative +questions, is to reply using counter-factual interjection /eng/ meaning +/yes/, while speakers will consider a simple /nei/ as an approbation of +the assumption of the question. + +#+html: ::: tip Example +- Komr han eig í dag? + + Is he not coming today? + +- Nei (han komr eig) + + No (he’s not coming) +or +- Áng (han komr) + + Yes he is coming +#+html: ::: + +Similarly, when a question with a positive assumption is asked, +Eittlandic speakers can answer with a counter-factual /náng/ to insist +on its erroneous nature. + +#+html: ::: tip Example +- Komr han eig í dag? + + Is he not coming today? + +- Náng (han komr eig) + + Of course not (he’s not coming) +#+html: ::: + +Some yes/no questions are sometimes asked in a very reduced form, +without a full verbal sentence and only consisting of a noun phrase. +Think of questions like /Coffe?/ or /Another cookie?/ in English. Such +questions in Eittlandic require the final word /vit/. + +#+html: ::: tip Example +- Té ell kafé vit? + + Tea or coffe? +- Té, þakk. + + Tea, please/thanks. +#+html: ::: + +**** General questions +General questions that are not yes/no questions will most of the time +begin with a question word such as /hvar/ (/who/), the equivalent of WH +words in English. + ** Structure of a Nominal Group *** Composed Words :noexport: # - Is there noun-noun compounding that results in a noun (e.g. @@ -165,12 +480,12 @@ simplified to the table following it. |---+------------+------------------+-----------------+---------------+----------------| | | Sing. Nom. | heim-r | tíð | skip | tím-i | | | Acc. | heim | tíð | skip | tím-a | -| | Gen. | heim-s | tíð-ar | skip-s | tím-a | | | Dat. | heim-i | tíð | skip-i | tím-a | +| | Gen. | heim-s | tíð-ar | skip-s | tím-a | | | Plur. Nom. | heim-ar | tíð-ir | skip | tím-ar | | | Acc. | heim-a | tíð-ir | skip | tím-a | -| | Gen. | heim-a | tíð-a | skip-a | tím-a | | | Dat. | heim-um | tíð-um | skip-um | tím-um | +| | Gen. | heim-a | tíð-a | skip-a | tím-a | #+name: tbl:eittlandic-example-noun-inflexions #+caption: Declensions for strong and weak nouns in Modern Eittlandic @@ -179,12 +494,12 @@ simplified to the table following it. |---+------------+---------------+---------------+------------| | | Sing. Nom. | heim-r | skip | tím | | | Acc. | heim | skip | tím | -| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s | | | Dat. | heim | skip | tím | +| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s | | | Plur. Nom. | heim-r | skip | tím-r | | | Acc. | heim | skip | tím | -| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s | | | Dat. | heim-um | skip-um | tím-um | +| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s | As you can see, a good amount of declensions disappeared from nouns, with only four marked cases for strong common nouns and two for strong @@ -360,17 +675,14 @@ declensions in this dialect. In case a strong noun is used with a strong adjective, both will agree in number and gender. -+ Examples: - - hvítr hund - - white.m.sg.acc dog.m.sg.acc - - white dog - - langir tungir - - long.f.pl.acc tongues.f.pl.acc - - long tongues +#+html: ::: tip Example +- hvítr hund + | white.m.sg.acc | dog.m.sg.acc | + white dog +- langir tungir + | long.f.pl.acc | tongues.f.pl.acc | + long tongues +#+html: ::: *** Diminution and Augmentation :noexport: # - Does the language employ diminutive and/or augmentative operators diff --git a/docs/eittlandic/phonology.org b/docs/eittlandic/phonology.org index cc6d378..c969c41 100644 --- a/docs/eittlandic/phonology.org +++ b/docs/eittlandic/phonology.org @@ -317,8 +317,19 @@ when written in Standard Eittlandic due to the spelling dropping the final vowels affected here. #+html: ::: tip Example -Middle Eittlandic (to understand, to distinguish) {{{phon(ʃkiʎə)}}} > Late -Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiːʎ)}}} +Middle Eittlandic (to understand, to distinguish) {{{phon(ʃkiʎə)}}} > Modern +Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiːʎ)}}} +#+html: ::: + +*** C[+plos +fric] > C[-plos] +During the late 19th century to early 20th century, Eittlandic lost +its affricate consonants as they morphed into simple fricatives. +Therefore, some Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(pː)}}} became in Modern +Eittlandic {{{phon(ɸ)}}} through {{{phon(pɸ)}}}. + +#+html: ::: tip Example +Old Norse /uppá/ (/upon/) {{{phon(upːɑː)}}} > Late Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(upɸə)}}} +> Modern Eittlandic {{{phon(uɸə)}}} #+html: ::: *** t / _C > ʔ ! _ʃ