commit 2ac1781763f62ccf681117e8179a4d8c6e42e4ac Author: Lucien Cartier-Tilet Date: Sun Feb 26 19:20:43 2023 +0100 initial commit diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bdee8b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitignore @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +node_modules +.temp +.cache +/docs/**/*.md +/yarn.lock +/docs/.vuepress/dist/ diff --git a/.volarrc b/.volarrc new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e69de29 diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.org b/CONTRIBUTING.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7190bab --- /dev/null +++ b/CONTRIBUTING.org @@ -0,0 +1,7 @@ +Sorry, but no. Maybe one day I’ll make it so that people can sort of participate +with the development of some of my languages, but as for now I wish to work +alone on these projects. + +In any case, feedback is more than welcomed, and you can either open +issues or send me emails at [[mailto:lucien@phundrak.com]], I’ll be more +than happy to talk and chat about these conlangs! diff --git a/LICENSE.org b/LICENSE.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5c2e894 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.org @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +* Licensing +The source code you can find in various programming languages in this +repository including, but not limited to, Javascript and CSS source +code is under the [[https://www.gnu.org/licenses/quick-guide-gplv3.html][GPLv3]] ([[https://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-3.0.html][legal code]]) licence. + +The creative work contained in [[https://labs.phundrak.com/phundrak/langue-phundrak-com][the main code repository]], on my [[https://github.com/Phundrak/langue-phundrak-fr/][Github +mirror]], and on my website [[https://langue.phundrak.com][langue.phundrak.com]] is dual-licenced between +the [[https://www.gnu.org/licenses/#FDL][GFDL]] ([[file:fdl-1.3.md][legal code]]) for the text and the /Creative Commons +Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International/ ([[https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/][CC BY-NC-SA +4.0]], [[https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/legalcode][legal code]]) license. + +Copies of all the mentionned licenses can be found in the code +repositories mentionned above. + +If you wish to obtain a special license that is incompatible with the +current ones, please contact me at [[mailto:lucien@phundrak.com][lucien@phundrak.com]] so we can +discuss it. diff --git a/README.org b/README.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b8cd755 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.org @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +#+title: P’undrak’s Conlangs + +#+html: +#+html: +#+html: +#+html: + + +* About the Project +This repository holds my conlanging projects I am working on. The +files I’m using are written in [[https://orgmode.org/][org-mode]] and are exported in Markdown +through [[https://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/][Emacs]]. + +These Markdown files are then compiled by [[https://v2.vuepress.vuejs.org/][Vuepress]] into a beautiful +website available at [[https://conlang.phundrak.com][https://v2.vuepress.vuejs.org/]]. + +* Running the project +In order to run the project, you need to export all =.org= files in the +Markdown format. To do that easily, you can use an org project setup +in Emacs, mine looks like this: +#+begin_src emacs-lisp +(require 'ox-gfm) +(defvar phundrak--projects-conlanging-common-root + "~/org/conlanging/docs/" + "Points to the common root of my source and target for my +conlang.phundrak.com org project.") +(setq org-publish-project-alist + `(("conlang-phundrak-com-md" + :base-directory ,phundrak--projects-conlanging-common-root + :base-extension "org" + :exclude ,(rx (* print + (or "CONTRIB" + "README" + "site-map" + "temp" + "private" + "svg-ink") + (* print))) + :publishing-directory ,phundrak--projects-conlanging-common-root + :recursive t + :language "en" + :publishing-function org-gfm-publish-to-gfm + :headline-levels 5 + :auto-sitemap nil + :auto-preamble nil) + ("conlang-phundrak-com" + :components ("conlang-phundrak-com-md")))) +#+end_src + +Once you have all the Markdown files generated correctly, you can +install the dependencies of the project. +#+begin_src shell +yarn +# or +npm install +#+end_src + +Once this is done, you can launch a preview of the project. +#+begin_src shell +yarn docs:dev +# or +npm run docs:dev +#+end_src + +You can also compile the project to a static website. +#+begin_src shell +yarn docs:build +# or +npm run docs:build +#+end_src diff --git a/by-nc-sa.md b/by-nc-sa.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d379d94 --- /dev/null +++ b/by-nc-sa.md @@ -0,0 +1,173 @@ +# Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International + +Creative Commons Corporation (“Creative Commons”) is not a law firm and does not provide legal services or legal advice. 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For the avoidance of doubt, this paragraph does not form part of the public licenses. +> +> Creative Commons may be contacted at creativecommons.org diff --git a/docs/.dir-locals.el b/docs/.dir-locals.el new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a1a020d --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/.dir-locals.el @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +;;; Directory Local Variables -*- no-byte-compile: t -*- +;;; For more information see (info "(emacs) Directory Variables") + +((org-mode . ((org-list-allow-alphabetical . nil) + (org-confirm-babel-evaluate . nil)))) diff --git a/docs/.vuepress/.dir-locals.el b/docs/.vuepress/.dir-locals.el new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f9a5883 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/.vuepress/.dir-locals.el @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +;;; Directory Local Variables -*- no-byte-compile: t -*- +;;; For more information see (info "(emacs) Directory Variables") + +((typescript-mode . ((typescript-indent-level . 2)))) diff --git a/docs/.vuepress/client.ts b/docs/.vuepress/client.ts new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e5e58f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/.vuepress/client.ts @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +import { defineClientConfig } from '@vuepress/client'; +import ImgFigure from './components/ImgFigure.vue'; + +export default defineClientConfig({ + enhance({app}) { + app.component('ImgFigure', ImgFigure); + }, + setup() {}, + layouts: {}, + rootComponents: [], +}) diff --git a/docs/.vuepress/components/ImgFigure.vue b/docs/.vuepress/components/ImgFigure.vue new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b94eeea --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/.vuepress/components/ImgFigure.vue @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ + + + + + diff --git a/docs/.vuepress/config.ts b/docs/.vuepress/config.ts new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e4bf086 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/.vuepress/config.ts @@ -0,0 +1,87 @@ +import { defineUserConfig, defaultTheme } from "vuepress"; +import { removeHtmlExtensionPlugin } from "vuepress-plugin-remove-html-extension"; +import head from "./head"; + +export default defineUserConfig({ + lang: "en-US", + title: "Phundrak's Conlangs", + head: head, + description: "Documentation of the constructed languages made by Phundrak", + markdown: { + html: false, + linkify: true, + typographer: true, + headers: { + level: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5], + }, + }, + plugins: [removeHtmlExtensionPlugin()], + theme: defaultTheme({ + sidebarDepth: 5, + repo: "https://labs.phundrak.com/phundrak/conlang.phundrak.com", + sidebar: [ + { + text: "Index", + link: "/", + }, + { + text: "Eittlandic", + link: "/eittlandic/", + collapsible: true, + children: [ + { + text: "The Country", + link: "/eittlandic/country", + }, + { + text: "Linguistic Typology", + link: "/eittlandic/typology", + }, + { + text: "Phonology", + link: "/eittlandic/phonology", + }, + { + text: "Syntax", + link: "/eittlandic/syntax", + }, + { + text: "Dictionary", + link: "/eittlandic/dictionary", + }, + ], + }, + { + text: "Proto-Ñyqy", + link: "/proto-nyqy/", + collapsible: true, + children: [ + { + text: "Introduction", + link: "/proto-nyqy/introduction", + }, + { + text: "Culture and People", + link: "/proto-nyqy/culture-and-people", + }, + { + text: "Linguistic Typology", + link: "/proto-nyqy/typology", + }, + { + text: "Phonology", + link: "/proto-nyqy/phonology", + }, + { + text: "Syntax", + link: "/proto-nyqy/syntax", + }, + { + text: "Dictionary", + link: "/proto-nyqy/dictionary", + }, + ], + }, + ], + }), +}); diff --git a/docs/.vuepress/head.ts b/docs/.vuepress/head.ts new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a1ab94c --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/.vuepress/head.ts @@ -0,0 +1,128 @@ +interface SimplifiedHeader { + tag: string; + content: [any]; +} + +const simplifiedHead = [ + { + tag: "meta", + content: [ + { + name: "author", + content: "Lucien Cartier-Tilet", + }, + { + property: "og:image", + content: "https://cdn.phundrak.com/img/rich_preview.png", + }, + { + property: "org:title", + content: "P’undrak’s Conlangs", + }, + { + property: "og:description", + content: "Documentation of P’undrak’s constructed languages", + }, + { + name: "twitter:card", + content: "summary", + }, + { + name: "twitter:site", + content: "@phundrak", + }, + { + name: "twitter:creator", + content: "@phundrak", + }, + { name: "msapplication-TileColor", content: "#3b4252" }, + { name: "msapplication-TileImage", content: "/ms-icon-144x144.png" }, + { name: "theme-color", content: "#3b4252" }, + ], + }, + { + tag: "link", + content: [ + { + rel: "apple-touch-icon", + sizes: "57x57", + href: "/apple-icon-57x57.png", + }, + { + rel: "apple-touch-icon", + sizes: "60x60", + href: "/apple-icon-60x60.png", + }, + { + rel: "apple-touch-icon", + sizes: "72x72", + href: "/apple-icon-72x72.png", + }, + { + rel: "apple-touch-icon", + sizes: "76x76", + href: "/apple-icon-76x76.png", + }, + { + rel: "apple-touch-icon", + sizes: "114x114", + href: "/apple-icon-114x114.png", + }, + { + rel: "apple-touch-icon", + sizes: "120x120", + href: "/apple-icon-120x120.png", + }, + { + rel: "apple-touch-icon", + sizes: "144x144", + href: "/apple-icon-144x144.png", + }, + { + rel: "apple-touch-icon", + sizes: "152x152", + href: "/apple-icon-152x152.png", + }, + { + rel: "apple-touch-icon", + sizes: "180x180", + href: "/apple-icon-180x180.png", + }, + { + rel: "icon", + type: "image/png", + sizes: "192x192", + href: "/android-icon-192x192.png", + }, + { + rel: "icon", + type: "image/png", + sizes: "32x32", + href: "/favicon-32x32.png", + }, + { + rel: "icon", + type: "image/png", + sizes: "96x96", + href: "/favicon-96x96.png", + }, + { + rel: "icon", + type: "image/png", + sizes: "16x16", + href: "/favicon-16x16.png", + }, + { rel: "manifest", href: "/manifest.json" }, + ], + }, +]; + +let head = []; +simplifiedHead.map((tag: SimplifiedHeader) => { + let tagName = tag.tag; + tag.content.forEach((element) => { + head.push([tagName, element]); + }); +}); + +export default head; diff --git 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--nord14: #a3be8c; + --nord15: #b48ead; + + scroll-behavior: smooth; + + // brand colors + --c-brand: var(--nord14); + --c-brand-light: var(--nord14); + + // background colors + --c-bg: var(--nord6); + --c-bg-light: var(--nord6); + --c-bg-lighter: var(--nord5); + --c-bg-dark: var(--nord5); + --c-bg-darker: var(--nord4); + --c-bg-navbar: var(--c-bg); + --c-bg-sidebar: var(--c-bg); + --c-bg-arrow: var(--nord4); + + // text colors + --c-text: var(--nord1); + --c-text-accent: var(--c-brand); + --c-text-light: var(--nord2); + --c-text-lighter: var(--nord3); + --c-text-lightest: var(--nord4); + --c-text-quote: var(--nord2); + + // border colors + --c-border: var(--nord4); + --c-border-dark: var(--nord4); + + // custom container colors + --c-tip: var(--nord14); + --c-tip-bg: var(--c-bg); + --c-tip-title: var(--c-text); + --c-tip-text: var(--c-text); + --c-tip-text-accent: var(--c-text-accent); + --c-warning: var(--nord13); + --c-warning-bg: var(--c-bg); + --c-warning-bg-light: var(--c-bg-light); + --c-warning-bg-lighter: var(--c-bg-lighter); + --c-warning-border-dark: var(--nord3); + --c-warning-details-bg: var(--c-bg); + --c-warning-title: var(--nord12); + --c-warning-text: var(--nord12); + --c-warning-text-accent: var(--nord12); + --c-warning-text-light: var(--nord12); + --c-warning-text-quote: var(--nord12); + + --c-danger: var(--nord11); + --c-danger-bg: var(--c-bg); + --c-danger-bg-light: var(--c-bg-light); + --c-danger-bg-lighter: var(--c-bg-light); + --c-danger-border-dark: var(--nord11); + --c-danger-details-bg: var(--nord2); + --c-danger-title: var(--nord11); + --c-danger-text: var(--nord11); + --c-danger-text-accent: var(--nord11); + --c-danger-text-light: var(--nord11); + --c-danger-text-quote: var(--nord11); + + --c-details-bg: var(--c-bg-lighter); + + // badge component colors + --c-badge-tip: var(--c-tip); + --c-badge-warning: var(--c-warning); + --c-badge-warning-text: var(--c-bg); + --c-badge-danger: var(--c-danger); + --c-badge-danger-text: var(--c-bg); + + // transition vars + --t-color: 0.3s ease; + --t-transform: 0.3s ease; + + // code blocks vars + --code-bg-color: var(--nord0); + --code-hl-bg-color: var(--nord1); + --code-ln-color: #9e9e9e; + --code-ln-wrapper-width: 3.5rem; + + // font vars + --font-family: -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen, + Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Fira Sans', 'Droid Sans', 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif; + --font-family-code: Consolas, Monaco, 'Andale Mono', 'Ubuntu Mono', monospace; + + // layout vars + --navbar-height: 3.6rem; + --navbar-padding-v: 0.7rem; + --navbar-padding-h: 1.5rem; + --sidebar-width: 20rem; + --sidebar-width-mobile: calc(var(--sidebar-width) * 0.82); + --content-width: 740px; + --homepage-width: 960px; +} + +html.dark { + // brand colors + --c-brand: var(--nord14); + --c-brand-light: var(--nord14); + + // background colors + --c-bg: var(--nord1); + --c-bg-light: var(--nord2); + --c-bg-lighter: var(--nord2); + --c-bg-dark: var(--nord3); + --c-bg-darker: var(--nord3); + + // text colors + --c-text: var(--nord4); + --c-text-light: var(--nord5); + --c-text-lighter: var(--nord5); + --c-text-lightest: var(--nord6); + --c-text-quote: var(--c-text); + + // border colors + --c-border: var(--nord3); + --c-border-dark: var(--nord3); + + // custom container colors + --c-tip: var(--nord14); + --c-warning: var(--nord13); + --c-warning-bg: var(--c-bg); + --c-warning-bg-light: var(--c-bg-light); + --c-warning-bg-lighter: var(--c-bg-lighter); + --c-warning-border-dark: var(--nord3); + --c-warning-details-bg: var(--c-bg); + --c-warning-title: var(--nord13); + --c-warning-text: var(--nord13); + --c-warning-text-accent: var(--nord13); + --c-warning-text-light: var(--nord13); + --c-warning-text-quote: var(--nord13); + + --c-danger: var(--nord11); + --c-danger-bg: var(--c-bg); + --c-danger-bg-light: var(--c-bg-light); + --c-danger-bg-lighter: var(--c-bg-light); + --c-danger-border-dark: var(--nord11); + --c-danger-details-bg: var(--nord2); + --c-danger-title: var(--nord11); + --c-danger-text: var(--nord11); + --c-danger-text-accent: var(--nord11); + --c-danger-text-light: var(--nord11); + --c-danger-text-quote: var(--nord11); + + --c-details-bg: var(--c-bg-light); + + // badge component colors + --c-badge-warning-text: var(--nord0); + --c-badge-danger-text: var(--nord0); + + // code blocks vars + --code-hl-bg-color: var(--nord2); +} diff --git a/docs/.vuepress/themeLocales.ts b/docs/.vuepress/themeLocales.ts new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9ea8066 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/.vuepress/themeLocales.ts @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +const themeLocales = { + "/": { + sidebar: ["/index.md", "/eittlandic/index.md"], + }, +}; diff --git a/docs/eittlandic/country.org b/docs/eittlandic/country.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e8854c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/eittlandic/country.org @@ -0,0 +1,562 @@ +#+title: The Country of Eittland +#+setupfile: ../headers + +* The Country of Eittland +** Eittlandic Geography +Eittland is an active volcanic island. In its center we can find the +most active volcanoes, surrounded by glaciers and some regular +mountains. It is surrounded by some taiga, taiga plains covered mainly +by ashen pines (/pinus fraxinus/), and a large cold desert covering most +of the center of the island and its northern eastern part. Outside of +this largely unpopulated region, Eastern Eittland mainly consists of +grasslands with some temperate rainforests on its southern shores as +well as some occasional wetland and marshes. On the other hand, +Western Eittland has a lot more temperate deciduos forests, temperate +rainforests and some more wetlands and marshes still. Three small cold +deserts spawn in Western Eittland, including one north east of +Đeberget not far from the city. More details can be found in the map +below. Overall, the southern and western parts of Eittland can be +compared to Scotland in terms of temperatures, or a warmer Iceland. + +#+html: Biomes of the Eittlandic Island + +Eastern Eittland is also recognizable by its great amount of flat +shorelines, especially in its northern and eastern parts which are part +of the more recent paths of lava flows. On the other hand, its few +fjords and the numerous fjords found in the western part of the island +are characteristic of much older parts of Eittland. The Fjord +themselves were formed during the last ice age, while the smoother +shore lines formed since. Western Eittland also has two main bays +which are two very old caldeira volcanoes. It is not known whether +they will be one day active again or not. + +** Culture +The Eittlandic people share a common basis for their culture which +remained rather conservative for much longer than the other nordic +people due to its resistance towards Christianity conversion. The +number of people adhering to Norse beliefs remained very high through +the ages and only recently began declining, going from 93% of +Eittlanders declaring themselves follower of the Norse Faith in 1950 +to 68% in 2019. This decline is also due to either people converting +to a religion or due to the immigration boom from the last seventy +years, though the main reason is the decline in people identifying to +any faith at all --- the number of atheists went from only 2% of +Eittlanders in 1940 to 15% in 2019. The evolution of the religious +population is shown in the chart below, and a geographical +distribution of these in 2019 can be found in the map following the +chart --- note that only the main religion is shown in a particular +area and religions with less people in said area are not shown. You +can also see on said map the population repartition of Eittland. + +#+headers: :cache yes :exports none +#+begin_src gnuplot :file img/eittlandic/religions.png :var data=eittland-religions +set title "Religions in Eittland since 1950" +set title boxed offset 0,0 font ",15" +set key invert reverse Left outside + +set yrange [0:100] +set grid y +set ylabel "Percentage" + +set border 3 +set style data histograms +set style histogram rowstacked +set style fill solid border -1 +set boxwidth 1 + +plot data u 2:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 title 'Norse Faith', \ + data u 3:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 title 'Atheism', \ + data u 4:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 title 'Church of Eittland', \ + data u 5:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 title 'Christianity', \ + data u 6:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 title 'Buddhism', \ + data u 7:xticlabels(1) axis x1y1 title 'Other' +#+end_src + +#+html: Religious Evolution of Eittland Since 1900 + +#+html: Religious population of Eittland in 2019 + +There is also a regional cultural difference between Western, Eastern, +and Southern Eittland marked with some differences in traditions and +language. There is currently a nationalist movement in Southern +Eittland so a new state is created within the Kingdom of Eittland. The +repartition of the different eittlandic cultures is shown in the map +below. +#+html: Cultural Map of Eittland + +Standard Eittlandic is a relatively young language, created in the +1960s by the government in order to create a standard dialect to +facilitate communications between Eittlanders and make learning the +language easier. Standard Eittlandic is now enforced as the /de facto/ +legal language of the High Kingdom of Eittland, used by its +government, schools, and universities, but the local dialects are +still widely spoken privately and in business which remains regional. +They still have a strong presence in popular media and are still +spoken by younger generations, however, a decline has been registered +since the 90s among young people living in cities, speaking more and +more in Standard Eittlandic instead. Dialects are also rarely used on +the internet outside of private conversation. An estimate of 17% of +the Eittlandic population younger than 25 in 2017 do not speak any +dialectal Eittlandic outside of Standard Eittlandic, although only 2% +of them do not understand their family’s dialectal Eittlandic. +Standard Eittlandic also became the default dialect for Eittlandic +communities living outside of Eittland --- in these communities the +inability of speaking other dialects rise to 61% while the ability to +understand them rises to 25% among Eittlanders younger than 25 in 2018 +and who still have Eittlandic as their mother tongue. + +It is estimated only 0.05% of people living in Eittland do not speak +any Eittlandic dialect, all of them being immigrants or children of +immigrants. It is therefore safe to say Eittlandic is still going +strong and does not face any risk of disappearing anytime soon, +although we might be at the start of the decline of the historical +dialects of Eittland in favor of Standard Eittlandic. + +In this document, you will see references to both Standard Eittlandic +and Modern Eittlandic. Although some people use the terms +interchangeably, they are not. /Standard Eittlandic/ refers to the +official dialect described above, while /Modern Eittlandic/ refers to +all modern dialects of Eittlandic. This document focuses on Modern +Eittlandic in general, and when details about specific dialects are +given, the name of said dialect will be shared. + +** Name of the Country +The origins of the name of Eittland are unclear, two main theories +exist regarding its etymology. + +The first theory says the root of the name of “Eittland” is the +accusative of /einn/ (Old Norse /one/, /alone/) and /land/ (Old Norse /country/, +/land/. This is due to how remote it seemed to the people who +discovered, before Iceland and Greenland were known. Hence, a possible +translation of “Eittland” can be /Lonely Land/. The term “Eittlandic” is +relatively transparent considering the term “Icelandic” for “Iceland” +and “Greenlandic” for “Greenland”. + +However, the second but least probable theory is the island is named +after /eitr/, a mythical poison from which the first Jøtunn Ymir was +created. Eittland’s waters near the volcanoes containing high amounts +of sulfur, a poison, could be what named the island. This association +with poison, as well as the association to the place where it was +found, /Ginnungagap/, could have acted as a deterrent to prevent people +outsiders from coming. + +This last theory’s first recorded mention is from the 18th century, +while the first theory appears to be much older, and therefore much +more likely. It is possible the latter was thought of as a way to +re-invigorate Eittland’s identity as a pagan country unlike its other +Nordic counterparts, maybe even as a fearsome country. + +Although the country is known as Eittland, the island itself bears a +few other names. Early records show the island being referred to as +/Vestrheim/ by early settlers, meaning /West Home/, and its inhabitants +being referred to as /Vestrheiming/ and /Vestrheimingjar/ (singular and +plural respectively). Around the same time, settlers living closer to +the mountains would also call the inner lands /Fjallheim/, meaning +/Mountain Home/, which stuck until now as a name for the Northwestern +peninsula of Eittland. Lastly, the name /Eldøy/, /Fire Island/, was used +to refer both to Eittland and Iceland due to their volcanic activity. +Nowadays, the name morphed into /Eldfjall/ to refer to the volcanic +cluster at the center of the Island. + +** History +*** Early Eittlandic History (7th-12th centuries) +According to historical records, Eittland was first found in 763 by +Norwegian explorers. Its first settlement appeared in 782 on its +eastern shores with hopes of finding new farmland. The population grew +rapidly after the discovery of the southern shores, and in 915 +Eittland became self-governing with Ásmundr Úlfsonn declared the first +Eittlandic king. However, in order to avoid any unnecessary conflicts, +the new king swore allegiance to the Norwegian king Harald I +Halfdansson. Eittland thus became a vassal state to the Norwegian +crown while retaining autonomy from it, which was granted due to the +distance between the two countries. + +Shortly after however, the beginning of the christianisation of the +nordic countries and especially of Norway created a new immigration +boost in Eittland with norsemen seeking a pagan land untouched by +christian faith. In 935, a year after Haakon I Haraldsson became king +of Norway and began trying to introduce Christianity to its people, +the newly crowned king Áleifr I Ásmundson of Eittland adopted a new +law forbidding the Christian faith to be imported, promoted, and +practiced in Eittland. This decision forever weakened the alliance +between the two countries and detariorated their relationship. + +As more and more people in Eittland were moving to its western part +due to larger opportunities with its farmlands, king Áleifr I chose in +936 to move the capital of Eittland from Hylfjaltr to Đeberget and +split in half the country. He appointed his brother Steingrímr, later +known as Steingrímr I Áleifsbróðr, as his co-ruler and gave him +authority over Eastern Eittland while he kept ruling himself over +Western Eittland. This choice is due to the difficulty of going from +one side of the island to the other by land --- lava flows often +forcefully close and destroy paths joining the two parts together. +This gave birth to the two states of the Kingdom of Đeberget (also +called the /Western Eittlandic Kingdom/) and the Kingdom of Hylfjaltr +(also called the /Eastern Eittlandic Kingdom/). More on that in +[[Political Organization][#Political-Organization]]. + +*** Crusades and Independence (13th century - 1400) +As soon as the 13th century, and through the 14th century, the +Teutonic Order and the Livonian Order, backed by the Holy Roman +Empire, proposed crusades against Eittland to get rid of its norse +faith. However, these never came to be due to the distance between +Eittland and mainland Europe, despite the papal authorisations in +1228, 1257, 1289, 1325, and 1367. + +In 1397, the creation of the Kalmar Union kicked a new crusade, this +time backed by the Union itself as well as the Teutonic Order --- Eric +of Pomerania aimed to unify his country both religiously by getting +rid of the norse faith in Eittland and politically by getting rid of +its established monarchy. A contingent sailed to Eittland to submit +the island, however they were met with fierce resistance by the locals +on arrival. Estimates show that while some 2.400 Eittlandic people +died during this first invasion, most of the 3.000 men sent were +either killed or taken prisoners. + +In 1398, a new contingent of 12.000 men landed in Eittland. This time, +a much more prepared army of 14.000 men faced them on a battlefield +east of the eastern capital of Hyfjaltr. This resulted in an +Eittlandic victory, however the Monarch of Hylfjaltr Eiríkr IV +Ásgeirsbróðr lost his life during the battle. Coincidentally, the High +King Ásgeirr I Biœrgson died of unknown causes around the same time. +Historians still debate whether it is due to the ongoing conflict, and +if it is by who. Theories range from poisoning by spies from the +Kalmar Union, to assassination by the next rulers, to a much more +simple, unknown health condition which coincided with the ongoing +events. + +During the same year, the Althing elected Arvid I Geirson as the new +High King who nominated his brother Havardr I Arvidbróðr as the +Monarch of Hylfjaltr. While the previous monarchs took a more +defensive approach, they chose to become much more aggressive, +striving for independence. After demands were sent to the Kalmar +Union, Eittland began a series of raids on its territories, ranging +from Iceland to the Faroese Islands to even two raids in Norway and +Denmark. These raids only aimed trade and military ships but severely +handicaped the Union’s marine. + +On September 17th, 1400 High King Arvid Geirson of Eittland and King +Erik of the Kalmar Union met in Reykjavik to sign the Treaty of +Reykjavik, during which the Kalmar Union recognized the independence +of Eittland and renounced its claims to the island. On the other hand, +Eittland ceeded its Greenlandic colonies to the Kalmar Union. Both +parties agreed to end the hostilities towards one another. + +While the Union no longer launched any crusades against Eittland, the +Teutonic Order attempted to land again in 1407 with 4.000 men. +Although the Kingdom of Hylfjaltr took a devastating blow during the +initial days of the crusade, loosing well over 6.000 men, the invaders +were ultimately defeated thanks to reinforcement from the Kingdom of +Ðeberget. This marked the end of crusades in Eittland. + +*** The Absolute Monarchy (1400-1852) +Once independent, Eittland quickly became isolated among the European +nations due as it was percieved as a pagan nation by the rest of the +continent. For over a century, the country had to be almost entirely +self-sufficient. This lead to a more in-depth survey of the resources +of the land launched in 1421. Large quantities of iron were discovered +in 1432 in Western Eittland in the geologically older parts of the +island as well as copper and some gold. + +Unfortunately for the island, no coal deposit ever got found, the +islanders turned to charcoal instead. During the following century, an +important deforestation of Eittland took place until the royal decree +of 1542 was proclaimed in order to protect the forests. It ruled that +for each tree felled in the next hundred years, four shall be planted, +and only one once the period ended. The only exceptions were for +creating new pastures with the condition of the request being +submitted and accepted by the local Jarl and its government. + +The discovery of important marble deposits in the geologically more +recent parts of the island in 1512 was the event that reopened trades +with the continent. England was the first country to openly trade with +Eittland, swiftly followed by states from the Holy Roman Empire and +other protestant countries. The country became famous for its pure +white and green marble, which became its emblem. Walking in the +streets of major cities today, we can still see most of the monuments +and buildings from during that era made of marble. It is particularly +the case in Hylfjaltr, known by the nickname of “The White City” due +to the sheer amount of monuments made of ouf this material. + +It is around this time religious wars broke out in mainland Europe, +and war refugees coming at first from Scandinavia and soon enough from +all Northern and Western Europe came to Eittland to seek refuge. They +were accepted on the condition never to try and spread their religion +on the island with the risk of expulsion back to continental Europe. +At the time, the influx of refugees represented around one percent of +its total population, with about two thirds of it being protestants +and the rest catholics. The local protestant population officially +founded in 1587 the Church of Eittland. + +You can find in the chart below a breakdown of the various countries +and regions religious refugees came from. Although Scandinavia was one +of the first regions to take refuge in Eittland, most of refugees came +from the Holy Roman Empire and from France where religious wars were +particularly violent. It is estimated most of the Protestant +population of Eittland are mainly from French descent, while the HRE’s +and Scandinavian population came with mixes of Christians and +Protestants. On the other hand, most if not all of the English +population was Christian. + +#+header: :exports none +#+header: :file img/eittlandic/religious-refugees.png :cache yes +#+begin_src gnuplot :var data=nationality-religious-refugees +set title "Country of Origin of Religious Refugees" +set title boxed offset 0,-3 font ",15" +set style fill solid border lt -1 +set style textbox opaque noborder +set boxwidth 1.0 absolute +unset key + +set yrange [0:45] +set grid y +set ylabel "Percentage" + +set border 3 +set style data histograms +set style histogram cluster gap 1 +set style fill solid border -1 +set boxwidth 0.9 +set xtic rotate by -45 scale 0 + +plot data u 2:xtic(1) +#+end_src + +#+html: Breakdown of the country or region of origin of religious refugees in the 1500s + +With the beginning of coloniolization of Northern America, Eittland +became a naval hotspot. Its position allowed ships to cut in half +their journey if necessary and replenish their supplies. England and +the Netherlands were the first countries to halt in Eittland for such +reasons, participating in an important economic boom in the early 16th +century on a national scale. France later joined this trade route +starting in 1619 when going to their colonies in modern-day Canada. + +On the 30th of March 1775, England demanded from Eittland a port to be +used as a military port as part of their war effort during the +American revolution. Eittland refused these demands, invoking a +neutrality concerning the ongoing conflict. In response, England sent +an ultimatum, asking the port of Vátrsteinn to be their military base. +On Eittland’s second refusal, England declared war and launched a land +invasion of the island. The general in charge of the invasion, Sir +Andrew Sapping, decided to avoid landing in fjords, judging it too +risky and prone to ambushes. Instead, English troops landed in the +flatlands west of Vátrsteinn. While eittlandic troops were massing in +the nearby town of Vestrfjoðarkjapt, a volcano erupted into a +pyroclastic flow. The English landing site being on its path, half of +the invading English forces were immediately wiped out, and two thirds +of their vessels were badly dammaged or destroyed. Immediately after +this, Sir Sapping surrendered to the Eittlandic troops which were +captured as prisonners of war. Due to this defeat and the sudden +reduction in available men and ships in the English army, the Treaty +of Hylfjaltr was signed on the 25 of May of the same year. While +England recognized its defeat, Eittland promised not to intervene on +any side in the current rebellion of the American colonies (which was +not the intent of Eittland in the first place). + +After the independence of the United States of America, Eittland +retained its status as a maritime hotspot between Northern America and +Europe. Its ports of Kóparvall and Tvinnár, near Ðeberget and +Hylfjaltr respectively, became the two major ports in Eittland, with +Tvinnár generally favoured by ships coming from Europe and Kóparvall +favoured by ships coming from Northern America. + +** Political Organization +*** Kingdoms and Monarchy +While Eittland is a single country, it is host to two kingdoms: the +Kingdom of Đeberget in the western part of the country, and the +Kingdom of Hylfjaltr in its eastern part. This is due to a separation +of the country in two halves during the reign of Eittlands second king +Áleifr I when he realized the difficulties he and the following +monarchs of the island would face trying to rule the country alone +while the latter is almost always split in two by active volcanoes. +Thus, while the two kingdoms operate very independently from each +other --- each have their own policies on economics, education, +industry, and so on --- they also operate in cooperation as the +Eittlandic High Kingdom with the king of Đeberget at its head when it +comes to common policies, such as military decision and internrational +affairs. +#+html: The Two Eittlandic States + +This means that while both governments are independent from each other +and are legally equals to each other, the western monarch is the one +with the authority to decide on national actions after negotiations +between them and the eastern monarch. This is reflected by the throne +rooms found in official buildings such as the royal palaces where +three thrones can be found: a central, very large throne surrounded by +two other identical thrones, the right one for the monarch of +Hylfjaltr and the left one for the king of Đeberget. Most of the time, +both monarchs sit on their side throne, including when they meet each +other as the monarchs of Hylfjaltr and Đeberget. However, when the +monarch of Đeberget is meant to act as the High Monarch of Eittland, +they step up to the central throne and then represent the country as a +whole. + +At the end of the reign of the High King, either through abdication or +their death, his successor is enthroned within a month. Then, within a +year, the new High King has to appoint a new monarch for Hylfjaltr. +Traditionally, the new co-ruler is a brother of the current High +Monarch, however history showed it could be sometimes an uncle, a son, +a sister or even sometimes a daughter. When the eastern monarch either +abdicates or dies, the High Monarch has a month to designate a new +one. + +Up until the 14th century, the monarch of Hylfjaltr was rarely the +successor of the High Monarch. However, High King Ólafr I changed this +tradition and created a new one. He named his brother and co-ruler +King of Eittland and his son Prince of Eittland. From here on, the +King (or occasionally the Queen) of Eastern Eittland was meant to +become the new High Monarch of Eittland and make the Prince (or +occasional Princess) the ruler of Hylfjaltr. Then, once the reign of +the King ends, the Prince becomes the new High King and nominates a +new King and a new Prince. This was done to ensure the upcoming High +Monarch would be prepared in ruling the whole country by first ruling +the state. If anything were to happen to the Prince or Princess of +Eittland while the King or Queen of Hylfjaltr is on the throne, they +would have to nominate a new heir among the other possible heirs +possible for the late High Monarch. + +When the High Monarchs steps up to the central throne, they may +designate someone to fill in the role of the monarch of Đeberget for +the time being. They can also authorize the monarch of Hylfjaltr to do +so in case they are unavailable and someone need to represent the +country in front of foreign representatives. The last example was +during the two last years of Eríkr IX’s reign from 1987 to 1989 when +he could not act as High King due to his illness. While he did not +abdicate, he authorized king Harald III to act as High King while he +appointed his daughter and present-day High Queen Njall III as the +acting monarch of Đeberget. + +*** Regions and Jarldoms +While each kingdom is ruled by a monarch and the country is ruled by +the High Monarch, the kingdoms are divided into several kinds of +subdivisions. The most common one is the jarldom, historically ruled +by and still represented by a jarl during ceremonies. “Jarl” +translates as “Earl” in English, and they were the nobles in charge of +managing parts of the land in the name of the ruler. + +#+html: Eittlandic Provinces + +Some parts of the land are directly under the control of the crown, +such as the districts of Đeberget and Hylfjaltr, which the ruler ruled +without intermediaries. They are the private possessions of the family +of the rulers. + +On top of this the center of the island is divided in territories, one +administered by the government of Đeberget and two by the government +of Hylfjaltr. These territories are supposedly not inhabited by anyone +and are currently natural parks. This is mostly where you can find the +mountains and volcanoes of Eittland as well as its cold deserts. + +Due to the Last Royal Decree of 1826, jarls no longer rule their +jarldom themselves anymore. Instead, a local elected government takes +care of this role now. + +*** Governments +**** Monarchy and Things +The first form of government created in Eittland revolved around +Things (/þing/ in Eittlandic), assemblies of varying size occasionally +created at various levels of the state to decide on important matters, +with the Althing being the highest Thing to exist in Eittland. The +Things allow at first any adult man to participate, but as the +population grew some restrictions were put in place in order to limit +the amount of participants. Only one man could represent a household +starting from 982. Then, starting from 998, only jarls were allowed to +the ruler’s Thing, and only ten jarls from each kingdom, elected among +all the jarls from the same kingdom, would be allowed to attend the +High Monarch’s Thing. These jarls would then act as representatives of +the kingdom to the High King and his counsellors. + +In 1278, the first formal ministry (or department) was created in the +Ðeberget Kingdom, called a /Ráðuneyt/ (litt. “fellowship of +counsellors”) with a /Ráðunautr/ at its head, to aid the King Hallþórr V +Gunhildson’s in administering agriculture. The Hylfjaltr Kingdom soon +followed, creating its own in 1283 by order of Eyvindor III +Steingrímson. From then, ráðuneyts were created as needed with a +growing number. + +**** Constitutional Monarchy +In 1826, fearing the revolutionary climate in mainland Europe, Ólafr V +passed the appropriately named “Last Royal Decree” in 1826. This act +put in place a new form of government based on the British monarchy. + +The king transfers all the royal power from the rulers of Đeberget and +Hylfjaltr to the House of the People and the House of the Land (the +equivalent of the lower and upper Houses respectively). The House of +the People is composed of men elected during general elections every +eight years. It was decided for each jarldom and district, one +representative would be elected plus another one for each percentage +of the population of the kingdom the jarldom represents. + +A similar system was created for jarldoms in order to replace jarls +with locally elected governments, as well as the organisation of +municipalities. + +At first only male land owner of the Nordic Faith could vote and could +be elected. In 1886, all men of the Nordic Faith got the right to vote +and be elected in the general elections. In 1902, women gained the +right to vote and they gained the right to be elected in 1915. The law +that allowed women to vote also made the authorities stop enforcing +the restriction on the faith of the participants --- while the +original texts of 1826 and 1886 were clear on the fact only men of the +Nordic Faith were allowed to vote and be elected, women had no such +restriction making it unclear if it only applied to women or if this +restriction was revoked for everyone. Organizers of the next elections +in 1914 chose not to enforce this religious restriction and ever since +then. In 1998, Queen Siv I exceptionally used her powers of High Queen +to pass a law to clarify this issue and formally make Eittland a +non-religious country. This also removed the long unenforced ban on +other religions in Eittland. + +Note that while the rulers of Đeberget and Hylfjaltr have lost all +their power with the “Last Royal Decree”, the High Monarch remained +unaffected by the text though they act and are expected to act as if +it were the case. To replace them, the eastern and western governments +elect a single national representative meant to act as the head of +both states instead of the High Monarch who now holds only a +ceremonial position. However, it happens from time to time the High +Monarch passes a law, although they only write down in the law already +well established traditions, such as the ban on the religious +restrictions for voters which had not been enforced for almost a +century by that point. + +Today, Ráðuneyts still exist, but their head is no longer designated +by the monarch but by the head of the House of the People. Here is the +list of Ministries that exist in Eittland in 2022: +- /Bærráðuneyt/ :: Agriculture Ministry +- Dæmaráðuneyt :: Justice Ministry +- Erlendslandsráðuneyt :: Foreign Affair Ministry +- Fræðiráðuneyt :: Education Ministry +- Heilsráðuneyt :: Health Ministry +- Konungdómráðuneyt :: Kingdom’s Ministry (State Affairs) +- Náttúrráðuneyt :: Nature Ministry (including ecology) +- Rógráðuneyt :: War Ministry +- Teknikráðuneyt :: Technology Ministry +- Kaupráðuneyt :: Economy Ministry +- Vinnaráðuneyt :: Employment Ministry + +With the separation of the State with its religious departments +following the law of 1998, the /Heiðniráðuneyt/ (the Heathendom +Department) became an entity separate from the Government. Its +Ráðunautr used to be exceptionally appointed by the House of the Land, +unlike the rest of Ráðunautrs. + +* Private Data :noexport: +#+name: eittland-religions +| / | < | | | | | | +| Year | Norse Faith | Atheism | Church of Eittland | Christianity | Buddhism | Other | +|------+-------------+---------+--------------------+--------------+----------+-------| +| 1900 | 97 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | +| 1950 | 93 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | +| 1975 | 84 | 7 | 3 | 1 | 0.5 | 4.5 | +| 2000 | 76 | 12 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 4 | +| 2019 | 69 | 18 | 3 | 1 | 6 | 3 | + +#+name: nationality-religious-refugees +| Country | Percentage | +|-------------------+------------| +| France | 36 | +| Holy Roman Empire | 24 | +| Scandinavia | 22 | +| United Kingdom | 14 | +| Others | 4 | diff --git a/docs/eittlandic/dictionary.org b/docs/eittlandic/dictionary.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..57c52a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/eittlandic/dictionary.org @@ -0,0 +1,292 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers + +* Dictionary +** A + +** Á + +** Æ + +** B +*** bræð +m. {{{phon(brɛð)}}} + +See [[file:dictionary.md#broð][/bróð/]] + +*** bróð +m. {{{phon(brɔð)}}} + +1. brother, plural /bræð/ + +Re-analysis of /bródir/ decomposed into /bróð/ + /-ir/ by popular +etymology. Same goes for its former plural /bræðir/ which got +re-analyzed into /bræð/ + /-ir/. + +| / | | | | +| | | Singular | Plural | +|---+------+----------+--------| +| | Nom. | bróðr | bræðr | +| | Acc. | bróð | bræð | +| | Gen. | bróðir | bræðir | +| | Dat. | bróð | bræðum | + +*** bók +f. {{{phon(bɔk)}}} +1. book, plural /bøk/ + +| / | | | | +| | | Singular | Plural | +|---+------+----------+--------| +| | Nom. | bókr | bøkr | +| | Acc. | bók | bøk | +| | Gen. | bókar | bøkar | +| | Dat. | bók | bøkum | + +*** bøk +f. {{{phon(bøk)}}} + +See [[file:dictionary.md#bok][/bók/]] + +** C + +** D +*** djúp +adj. {{{phon(dʒop)}}} + +1. deep +2. profound (figuratively) + +*** djúpligr +adv. {{{phon(dʒopliɡr̩)}}} + +1. deeply +*** dóttir +f. {{{phon(dɔʧir)}}}, plural *dœtr* {{{phon(dœtr̩)}}} + +1. daughter + +** Đ + +** E +*** edda +f. {{{phon(ed)}}} + +1. great grandmother +2. female ancestor, beyond the grandmother +*** Eittland +n. {{{phon(ɑɪʔlɑnd)}}} + +1. (n) High Kingdom of Eittland, island of Eittland + +** É + +** F +*** feð +m. {{{phon(feð)}}} + +See [[file:dictionary.md#føð][/føð/]] + +*** fé +n. {{{phon(fɛ)}}} + +1. wealth + +From Old Norse /fé/. + +| | Singular | Plural | +|------+----------+--------| +| Nom. | fé | fé | +| Acc. | fé | fé | +| Gen. | fés | fés | +| Dat. | fé | férum | + +*** fisk +m. {{{phon(fiʃk)}}} + +1. fish + +From Old Norse /fiskr/. + +| | Singular | Plural | +|------+----------+--------| +| Nom. | fiskr | fiskr | +| Acc. | fisk | fisk | +| Gen. | fiskar | fiskar | +| Dat. | fisk | fiskum | + +*** føð +m. {{{phon(føð)}}} + +1. father, plural /feð/ + + From Old Norse /fødir/ and /feðir/ which got re-analyzed as /føð/ + appended with a grammatical /-ir/ (which later got reduced to a /-r/). + +| | Singular | Plural | +|------+----------+--------| +| Nom. | føðr | feðr | +| Acc. | føð | feð | +| Gen. | føðar | feðar | +| Dat. | føð | feðum | + +** G +*** gauð +n. {{{phon(jɔʊð)}}} + +1. a barking +2. a quarrel +*** gegn +adv. {{{phon(jeɡn̩)}}} + +1. against, opposing +*** gjøf +f. {{{phon(jøv)}}} + +1. gift, present + +** H +*** heilsa +f. {{{phon(hɑɪls)}}} + +1. health +*** hjól +n. {{{phon(çɔl)}}} + +1. wheel +*** hlóð +n. {{{phon(l̥ɔð)}}} + +1. hearth +2. living room +*** hneisa +f. {{{phon(n̥ɑɪs)}}} + +1. shame, disgrace +2. social isolation +*** hneising +n. {{{phon(n̥ɑɪsinɡ)}}} + +1. hermit +2. (modern) shut-in, hikikomori +*** hnjósa +v. {{{phon(ɲ̥ɔs)}}} + +1. to sneeze +*** hrifs +n. {{{phon(r̥ivs)}}} + +1. assault, mugging +*** hvat +adv. {{{phon(ʍɑt)}}} + +1. what +*** hví +adv. {{{phon(ʍe)}}} + +1. why + +** I + +** Í + +** J + +** K +*** kaup +n. {{{phon(kɔp)}}} + +1. commerce +2. bargain, barter + +** L + +** M + +** N +*** noregsúlf +m. {{{phon(norejsolv)}}} + +1. wolf, litt. Norway’s wolf. + + Wolves do not naturally live in Eittland. Their only relatives + introduced to the island were dogs and wolf-dogs, and the latter + inherited the simpler /úlfr/ term. Noun composed by Old Norse /noregs/ + (genitive of /Noregr/, /Norway/) and /úlfr/. + +** O + +** Ó +*** óglaðr +adj. {{{phon(ɔɡʲɑðr̩)}}} + +1. very sad, depressed, miserable + +** Ø + +** Œ +*** Œgir +m. {{{phon(œjir)}}} + +1. A mythical beast residing in the forests of the western +Eittlandic fjords. + +** P + +** Q + +** R + +** S +*** sitja +v. {{{phon(sitʃ)}}} + +1. to sit +2. to represent (politics) +*** sjá +v. {{{phon(ʃɛ)}}} + +1. to see +2. to understand +*** skilja +v. {{{phon(ʃkiʎ)}}} + +1. to differenciate +2. to segregate, to separate +3. to understand a difference +*** snjór +m. {{{phon(sɲɔr)}}} + +1. snow + +** T + +** Þ + +** U +*** uppá +prep. {{{phon(upɸə)}}} + +1. upon + +** Ú +*** úlf +m. {{{phon(olv)}}} + +1. wolf-dog. See also /noregsúlfr/. + +** V +*** veisheit +f. {{{phon(βɑɪshɑɪt)}}} + +1. knowledge or wisdom. From German /Weisheit/. See also /vizka/ +*** viska +f. {{{phon(βiʃk)}}} + +1. practical knowledge or wisdom, acquired from experience +See /veisheit/ for a more general term for /wisdow/ + +** Y + +** Ý + +** Z diff --git a/docs/eittlandic/functional-system.org b/docs/eittlandic/functional-system.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ebddfd0 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/eittlandic/functional-system.org @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers +* Functional System :noexport: +** Grammatical Relationship +# Examplify some simple intransitive, transitive, and ditransitive +# clauses. Three-argument clauses may not unequivocally exist. +# - What are the grammatical erlations of this language? Give +# morphosyntactic evidence for each one that you propose. +# - Subject? +# - Ergative? +# - Absolutive? +# - Direct object? +# - Indirect object? +# There are basically four possible sources of evidence for +# grammatical relations: +# - morphological case on NPs +# - person marking on verbs +# - constituent ord +# - some pragmatic hierarchy +# - Is the system of grammatical relations in basic (affirmative, +# declarative) clauses organized according to a +# nominative/accusative, ergative/absolutive, tripartite, or some +# other system? +# - Is there a split system for organizing grammatical relations? If +# so, what determin +# - Is there split instransitivity? If so, what semantic or +# discourse/pragmatic factor conditions the split? +# - Does the system for pronouns and/or person marking on verbs +# operate on the same basis as that of full NPs? +# - Are there different grammatical-relation systems depending on +# the clause type (e.g. main vs. dependent clauses, affirmative +# vs. negative clauses)? +# - Are there different grammatical-relation assignment systems +# depending on th +# - Are there any syntactic processes (e.g. conjunction reduction, +# relativization) that operate on an ergative/absolutive basis? +** Constructions Link +** Valence Increase +*** Causative +*** Applicative +*** Dative Shift +*** Dative Interest +*** External Possession diff --git a/docs/eittlandic/img b/docs/eittlandic/img new file mode 120000 index 0000000..3f0b6df --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/eittlandic/img @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../.vuepress/public/img \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/eittlandic/index.org b/docs/eittlandic/index.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d3377b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/eittlandic/index.org @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers + +* Eittland + +Eittland (Eittlandic: /Eittland/, {{{rune(eittland)}}}, {{{phon(ɑɪʔlɑ̃d)}}}) is part +of the family of Nordic countries and a member state of the Nordic +Council, with a population of 31.5 millions as per the 2019 national +census. It has a superficy of 121 km^{2}, making it the second largest +island in Europe after Great Britain. Its capital Đeberget is the +largest eittlandic city with a population of 1.641.600 in 2019. The +island is naturally separated in two, its western and eastern sides, +by a chain of volcanoes spawning on the separation of the North +American and the Eurasian plates, much like its northern sister +Iceland. Thus, its Eastern side covers 49km^{2} of the island and hosts +11.3 million inhabitants while the western side covers 72km^{2} with a +population of 20.1 millions. diff --git a/docs/eittlandic/phonology.org b/docs/eittlandic/phonology.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4f3d442 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/eittlandic/phonology.org @@ -0,0 +1,426 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers +* Phonetic Inventory and Translitteration +** Evolution from Early Old Norse to Eittlandic +Eittlandic evolved early on from Early Old Norse, and as such some +vowels it evolved from are different than the Old Norse vowels and +consonants some other Nordic languages evolved from. In this chapter, +we will see the main list of attested phonetic evolution Eittlandic +lived through. + +The history of Eittlandic goes from the late 8th century until +modern-day Eittlandic. Its history is divided as shown on table below. +It is not an exact science though as changes happened progressively +through the country. Changes were also progressive, meaning the dates +chosen to go from one language to the other are relatively arbitrary. +In evolution examples, it will be indicated whether the Eittlandic +pronunciation is specific to a certain time area (with /Early Middle +Eittlandic/, /Late Old Eittlandic/, etc…) but if it only specifies +/Eittlandic/ it means no significant changes in pronunciation occurred +since the phonetic rule shown. Meaning is also shown between +parenthesis. In case of semantic shift, its new meaning in Eittlandic +is shown --- the same goes for the word’s spelling. + +#+name: table:history-eittlandic-language +#+caption: Linguistic eras of Eittland +| Period | Language | +|-----------------------------+-------------------| +| 8th century - 12th century | Old Eittlandic | +| 13th century - 16th century | Middle Eittlandic | +| 17th century - today | Modern Eittlandic | + +It is generally considered the gj-shift of the 13th century is the +evolution that marks the change from Old Eittlandic to Middle +Eittlandic while the great vowel shift marks the change from Middle +Eittlandic to Modern Eittlandic between the 16th and the 17th century. + +*** hʷ » ʍ +One of the first evolution of the Eittlandic was the evolution of the +{{{phon(hʷ)}}} into a {{{phon(ʍ)}}} (written «hv»). It differs from other nordic +languages which evolved their {{{phon(hʷ)}}} into a {{{phon(v)}}}, like in +Icelandic or in Norwegian. However, this evolution is cause to debate, +mainly due to the original phoneme {{{phon(hʷ)}}} which could be inherited +from Proto-Norse instead. + ++ Example :: Early Old Norse or Late Proto-Norse /hvat/ (what) + {{{phon(hʷɑt)}}} » Eittlandic /hvat/ (what) {{{phon(ʍɑt)}}} + +*** C / #h_ » C[-voice] +When preceded by a {{{phon(h)}}}, word-initial consonants such as «l», «r», +«n» would lose their voicing and become voiceless consonants. Note +«hj» went to {{{phon(ç)}}}. + ++ Example :: + - Early Old Norse /hlóð/ (/hearth/) {{{phon(hloːð)}}} » Old Eittlandic /hlóð/ + {{{phon(l̥oːð)}}} + - Early Old-Norse /hneisa/ (/shame, disgrace/) {{{phon(hneisɑ)}}} » Early Old + Eittlandic {{{phon(n̥eisɑ)}}} + - Early Old Norse /hrifs/ (/robbery/) {{{phon(hrifs)}}} » Old Norse {{{phon(r̥ifs)}}} + - Early Old Norse /hjól/ (wheel) {{{phon(hjoːl)}}} » Old Eittlandic {{{phon(çoːl)}}} + +*** g / {#,V}_⁣{V,#} » ɣ +In word-initial position and followed by a vowel or when between +vowels, Early Old Norse {{{phon(g)}}} gets palatalized into a {{{phon(ɣ)}}}. + ++ Example :: Early Old Norse /gegn/ (/against, right opposite/) {{{phon(gegn̩)}}} + » Old Eittlandic {{{phon(ɣegn̩)}}} + +*** V / _⁣# » ∅ ! j _ +When finishing a word, short unaccented vowels disappeared. +Historically, they first went through a weakening transforming them +into a {{{phon(ə)}}}, but they eventually disappeared before long vowels got +affected by the first part of the rule. However, it did not apply to +final vowels following a «j». + ++ Example :: Old Norse /heilsa/ (/health/) {{{phon(heilsɑ)}}} » Late Old + Eittlandic /heils/ {{{phon(heils)}}}. + +Reflecting this change, the last vowel got lost in the Eittlandic +orthography. However, this rule did not get applied consistently with +a good deal of people that kept them well until the [[*Great Vowel Shift][Great Vowel Shift]]. + +*** V / j_# » ə +While the final short vowel of words did not disappear when preceded +by a «j», they still weakened to a schwa. + ++ Example :: Old Norse /sitja/ (/to sit/) {{{phon(sitjɑ)}}} » Old Eittlandic + {{{phon(sitjə)}}} + +*** Vː / _# » ə +When at the end of a word, long unaccented vowels get weakened into a +schwa. + ++ Example :: Old Norse /erþó/ (as though) {{{phon(erθoː)}}} » Late Old + Eittlandic {{{phon(erθə)}}}. + +Notice how in the modern orthography the «ó» didn’t get lost, unlike +with the previous rule. Unlike the schwa from the previous rule, the +current schwa still bears the long vowel feature although it is not +pronounced anymore by that point, influencing the rule described in [[*ə\[-long\] / C_# » +∅][rule 15]]. + +*** ɣ / {#,V}_ » j +During the 13th century, continued palatalization of the letter «g» +when beginning or preceding a vowel transformed it from {{{phon(g)}}} in +Proto-Norse to {{{phon(ɣ)}}} in Old Eittlandic to {{{phon(j)}}} in Early Modern +Eittlandic. + ++ Example :: Old Norse /gauð/ (a barking) {{{phon(gɑuð)}}} » Early Middle + Eittlandic /gauð/ (a barking, a quarrel) {{{phon(jɑuð)}}}. + +This is the first rule of the g/j-shift along with the three next +rules, marking the passage from Old Eittlandic to Middle Eittlandic. + +*** gl » gʲ +The exception to the above rule is the «g» remains a hard {{{phon(g)}}} when +followed by an «l» in which case {{{phon(gl)}}} becomes {{{phon(gʲ)}}}. + ++ Example :: Old Norse /óglaðr/ (sad, moody) {{{phon(oːɡlɑðr̩)}}} » Early + Middle Eittlandic /óglaðr/ (very sad, miserable) {{{phon(oːɡʲɑðr̩)}}} + +*** d g n s t / _j » C[+palat] +Another exception to the rule in [[*t / _C » ʔ ! _ʃ][rule 21]] is the «g» remains a hard +{{{phon(g)}}} when followed by a {{{phon(j)}}}, in which case {{{phon(gj)}}} becomes +{{{phon(j)}}}. Other phonemes {{{phon(d)}}}, {{{phon(h)}}}, {{{phon(n)}}}, {{{phon(s)}}}, and +{{{phon(t)}}} also get palatalized, merging with the following {{{phon(j)}}}. In +the end, we have the conversion table given by the table below. + +#+name: cons:palatalization +#+caption: Consonants palatalization +| Early Old Norse | Eittlandic | +|-----------------+------------| +| {{{phon(dj)}}} | {{{phon(dʒ)}}} | +| {{{phon(gj)}}} | {{{phon(j)}}} | +| {{{phon(nj)}}} | {{{phon(ɲ)}}} | +| {{{phon(sj)}}} | {{{phon(ʃ)}}} | +| {{{phon(tj)}}} | {{{phon(tʃ)}}} | + +Note this is also applicable to devoiced consonants from the rule +described in [[*C / #h_ » C\[-voice\]][rule 2]]. + ++ Example :: + - Early Old Norse /djúp/ (/deep/) {{{phon(djuːp)}}} » Middle Eittlandic /djúp/ + (/deep, profound/) {{{phon(dʒuːp)}}} + - Early Old Norse /gjøf/ (/gift/) {{{phon(gjøf)}}} » Early Middle Eittlandic + {{{phon(jøf)}}} + - Early Old Norse /snjór/ (/snow/) {{{phon(snjoːr)}}} » Middle Eittlandic + {{{phon(sɲoːr)}}} + - Early Old Norse /hnjósa/ (/to sneeze/) {{{phon(hnjoːsɑ)}}} » Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ɲ̥oːs)}}} + - Early Old Norse /sjá/ (/to see/) {{{phon(sjɑː)}}} » Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃɑː)}}} + - Early Old Norse /skilja/ (/to understand, to distinguish/) + {{{phon(skiljɑ)}}} » Early Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiljə)}}} + - Old Eittlandic /sitja/ (/to sit/) {{{phon(sitjə)}}} » Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(sitʃə)}}} + +*** j » jə / _# +With the appearance of word-final {{{phon(j)}}}, and epenthtetic {{{phon(ə)}}} +appeared due to the phonological rule forbidding word-final consonant +clusters to end with a {{{phon(j)}}}. + ++ Example :: + - Early Old Norse /berg/ (/rock/, /boulder/) {{{phon(berɡ)}}} » Middle + Eittlandic /berg/ {{{phon(berjə)}}} + +*** u / V_ » ʊ +When following another vowel, {{{phon(u)}}} becomes an {{{phon(ʊ)}}}. + ++ Example :: Old Norse /kaup/ (/bargain/) {{{phon(kɑup)}}} » Early Middle + Eittlandic {{{phon(kɑʊp)}}} + +*** {s,z} / _C[+plos] » ʃ +If {{{phon(s)}}} or {{{phon(z)}}} precede a plosive consonant, they become +palatalized into a {{{phon(ʃ)}}} --- the distinction between «s» and «z» is +lost. + ++ Example :: + - Old Norse /fiskr/ (/fish/) {{{phon(fiskr̩)}}} » Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(fiʃkr̩)}}} + - Early Old Norse /vizka/ (/wisdom/) {{{phon(βizkɑ)}}} » Middle Eittlandic + /viska/ {{{phon(βiʃk)}}} + +Note that in the Modern Eittlandic orthography, the «z» is replaced +with an «s». + +*** f / {V,C[+voice]}_ {V,C[+voice],#} » v +When a «f» is either surrounded by voice phonemes or is preceded by a +voiced phoneme and ends a word, it gets voiced into a {{{phon(v)}}}. + ++ Example :: Old Norse /úlf/ (wolf) {{{phon(uːlf)}}} » Middle Eittlandic /úlv/ {{{phon(uːlv)}}}. + +*** l / _j » ʎ +When followed by a «j», any «l» becomes a {{{phon(ʎ)}}}, merging with the +following «j». + ++ Example :: Early Middle Eittlandic /skilja/ (to understand, to + distinguish) {{{phon(ʃkiljə)}}} » Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiʎə)}}} + +*** ə[-long] / C_# » ∅ +As described in the [[*Vː / _# » ə][rule 6]], the schwa resulting from it kept its long +vowel feature although it wasn’t pronounced anymore. This resulted in +the current rule making all schwas resulting from short vowels at the +end of words to disappear when following a voiced consonant. This +basically boils down to any former short vowel following a «j» in +word-final position. + ++ Example :: Middle Eittlandic (to understand, to distinguish) + {{{phon(ʃkiʎə)}}} » Late Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃkiʎ)}}} + +*** ɑʊ » oː +Sometime in the 15th century, any occurence of «au», pronounced by +then {{{phon(ɑʊ)}}}, began shifting to {{{phon(oː)}}}. + ++ Example :: Early Middle Eittlandic /kaup/ (/bargain/) {{{phon(/kɑʊp/)}}} » Late + Middle Eittlandic /kaup/ (/commerce/) {{{phon(koːp)}}} + +*** C[+long +plos -voice] » C[+fric] ! / _C » C[+long +plos] » C[-long] +Unless followed by another consonant, any unvoiced long plosive +consonant becomes a short affricate while other long plosives simply +become shorter. + ++ Example :: + - Old Norse /edda/ (great grandmother) {{{phon(edːɑ)}}} » Late Middle Eittlandic + /edda/ (great grandmother, femalle ancestor) {{{phon(edɑ)}}} + - Old Norse /Eittland/ {{{phon(eitːlɑnd)}}} » Late Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(eitlɑnd)}}} + - Old Norse /uppá/ (/upon/) {{{phon(upːɑː)}}} » Late Middle Eittlandic {{{phon(upɸə)}}} + +*** r » ʁ (Eastern Eittlandic) +From the beginning of the 16th century, the Eastern Eittlandic {{{phon(r)}}} +began morphing into an {{{phon(ʁ)}}} in all contexts except in word-final +«-r», remanants of Old Norse’s nominative «-R». This is typical in the +Eastern region of Eittland and it can be even heard in some dialects +of Southern Eittlandic. + ++ Example :: + - Old Norse /dratta/ (/to trail/ or /walk like a cow/) {{{phon(drɑtʃ)}}} » Eastern Modern + Eittlandic /dratt/ (/act mindlessly/) {{{phon(dʁɑtʃ)}}} + - Early Old Norse /fjárdráttr/ (/(unfairly) making money/) + {{{phon(fjɑːdrɑːtːr̩)}}} » Eastern Modern Eittlandic /fjárdráttr/ (/to scam/) + {{{phon(fjɛʁdʁɛtr̩)}}} + +*** Great Vowel Shift +The great vowel shift happened during the 16th and 17th century during +which long vowels underwent a length loss, transforming them into +different short vowels. Only three rules governed this shift: +- V[+high +long] » V[-high -long] +- V[+tense +long] » V[-tense -long] +- V[-tense +long] » V[-long -low] + +Hence, the vowels evolved as shown in the table below. +#+name: vow:eittland:evolution +#+caption: Evolution of Old Norse long vowels to Eittlandic short vowels +| Orthography | Old Eittlandic vowel | Modern Eittlandic Vowel | +|-------------+----------------------+-------------------------| +| á | {{{phon(ɑː)}}} | {{{phon(ɛ)}}} | +| é | {{{phon(eː)}}} | {{{phon(ɛ)}}} | +| í | {{{phon(iː)}}} | {{{phon(e)}}} | +| ó | {{{phon(oː)}}} | {{{phon(ɔ)}}} | +| œ (ǿ) | {{{phon(øː)}}} | {{{phon(œ)}}} | +| ú | {{{phon(uː)}}} | {{{phon(o)}}} | +| ý | {{{phon(yː)}}} | {{{phon(ø)}}} | + +As you can see, some overlap is possible from Old Norse vowels and +Modern Eittlandic vowels. For instance, Eittlanders will read «e» and +«í» both as an {{{phon(e)}}}. + ++ Examples :: + - Middle Eittlandic /sjá/ (/to see/) {{{phon(ʃɑː)}}} » Modern Eittlandic {{{phon(ʃɛ)}}} + - Old Norse /fé/ (/cattle/) {{{phon(feː)}}} » Modern Eittlandic /fé/ (wealth) {{{phon(fɛ)}}} + - Late Proto-Norse /hví/ (/why/) {{{phon(hʷiː)}}} » Modern Eittlandic {{{phon(ʍe)}}} + - Old Norse /bók/ (/beech/, /book/) {{{phon(boːk)}}} » Modern Eittlandic (/book/) + {{{phon(bɔk)}}} + - Early Old Norse /œgir/ (/frightener/, /terrifier/) {{{phon(øːɡir)}}} » Modern + Eittlandic /Œgir/ (a kind of mythical beast) {{{phon(œjir)}}} + - Middle Eittlandic /úlv/ (/wolf/) {{{phon(uːlv)}}} » Modern Eittlandic {{{phon(olv)}}} + +Diphthongs also evolved following these rules: +- {{{phon(ei)}}} » {{{phon(ɑɪ)}}} +- {{{phon(ou)}}} » {{{phon(ɔʊ)}}} +- {{{phon(øy)}}} » {{{phon(œʏ)}}} + +*** V / _N » Ṽ[-tense] ! V[+high] (Southern Eittlandic) +When preceding a nasal, any vowel that is not high as determined by +the vowel tree in [[*Vowel Inventory][Vowel Inventory]] gets nasalized when preceding a +nasal consonant and loses its tenseness if it has any. Hence, the +pronunciation of the «a» in /Eittland/ is {{{phon(ã)}}}. However, Old Norse +/runa/ (rune) {{{phon(runɑ)}}} becomes /run/ (letter, character, rune) {{{phon(run)}}} +without any nasalization. + +Note this evolution is mostly proeminent in the southern regions of +Eittland and the city of Hundraðskip. It is less often documented in +Eastern Eittland and almost undocumented in Western Eittland. It is +more often documented in casual conversation buch rarer in formal +conversation, especially when the majority of the speakers in a group +are not southerners. + +*** t / _C » ʔ ! _ʃ +When a {{{phon(t)}}} precedes another consonant, it becomes a glottal stop. + ++ Example :: Early Modern Eittlandic /Eittland/ {{{phon(ɑɪtlɑnd)}}} » Modern + Eittlandic {{{phon(ɑɪʔlɑnd)}}} + +*** V^{U} » ə ! diphthongs (Western Eittlandic) +A recent evolution in Western Eittland is weakening any unstressed +vowel that is not a diphthong to a schwa. It is only documented in +casual speech but almost never in formal speech. + ++ Example :: + - Standard Eittlandic /ádreif/ (spray) {{{phon(ɛdrɑɪv)}}} » Western Casual + Eittlandic {{{phon(ɛdrɑɪv)}}} + - Standard Eittlandic /einlægr/ (/sincere/) {{{phon(ɑɪnlæɡr)}}} » Western + Casual Eittlandic {{{phon(ɑɪnləɡr)}}} + +** Vowel Inventory +Modern Eittlandic has a total of ten simple vowels and three +diphthongs, regardless of the dialect. Unlike its ancestor language, +Old Norse, it does not bear any distinction in vowel length anymore +since the great vowel shift (see the [[*Great Vowel Shift][Great Vowel Shift]]). The first +table below lists the Eittlandic simple vowels while the second table +lists the Eittlandic diphthongs. + +#+name: tab:vow:ipa +#+caption: Vowel inventory of Modern Eittlandic +| | | | +| | front | back | +|-----------+-------+------| +| close | i y | u | +| close-mid | e ø | o | +| open-mid | ɛ œ | ɔ | +| open | | ɑ | + +#+name: tab:vow:dipththongs +#+caption: Diphthongs of Modern Eittlandic +| diphthong | phonetics | +| | | +|-----------+-----------| +| ei | {{{phon(ɑɪ)}}} | +| au | {{{phon(ɔʊ)}}} | +| ey | {{{phon(œʏ)}}} | + +#+name: vow-dot-gen +#+header: :var vowels=vowels-featural-list +#+begin_src emacs-lisp :wrap "src dot :file eittland/vowel-feature-tree.png :exports none" +(conlanging-list-to-graphviz vowels) +#+end_src + +#+RESULTS[a09b27a1d20480fac7c5b832d8573babcfaa929f]: vow-dot-gen +#+begin_src dot :file eittland/vowel-feature-tree.png :exports none +graph{graph[dpi=300,bgcolor="transparent"];node[shape=plaintext];"vowels-0jqz0zl768va"[label="vowels"];"+high-0jqz0zl768vg"[label="+high"];"vowels-0jqz0zl768va"--"+high-0jqz0zl768vg";"+round-0jqz0zl768vi"[label="+round"];"+high-0jqz0zl768vg"--"+round-0jqz0zl768vi";"+front-0jqz0zl768vk"[label="+front"];"+round-0jqz0zl768vi"--"+front-0jqz0zl768vk";"/y/-0jqz0zl768vm"[label="/y/"];"+front-0jqz0zl768vk"--"/y/-0jqz0zl768vm";"-front-0jqz0zl768vr"[label="-front"];"+round-0jqz0zl768vi"--"-front-0jqz0zl768vr";"/u/-0jqz0zl768vs"[label="/u/"];"-front-0jqz0zl768vr"--"/u/-0jqz0zl768vs";"-round-0jqz0zl768w1"[label="-round"];"+high-0jqz0zl768vg"--"-round-0jqz0zl768w1";"/i/-0jqz0zl768w3"[label="/i/"];"-round-0jqz0zl768w1"--"/i/-0jqz0zl768w3";"-high-0jqz0zl768wg"[label="-high"];"vowels-0jqz0zl768va"--"-high-0jqz0zl768wg";"+round-0jqz0zl768wh"[label="+round"];"-high-0jqz0zl768wg"--"+round-0jqz0zl768wh";"+tense-0jqz0zl768wj"[label="+tense"];"+round-0jqz0zl768wh"--"+tense-0jqz0zl768wj";"+front-0jqz0zl768wl"[label="+front"];"+tense-0jqz0zl768wj"--"+front-0jqz0zl768wl";"/ø/-0jqz0zl768wn"[label="/ø/"];"+front-0jqz0zl768wl"--"/ø/-0jqz0zl768wn";"-front-0jqz0zl768ws"[label="-front"];"+tense-0jqz0zl768wj"--"-front-0jqz0zl768ws";"/o/-0jqz0zl768wu"[label="/o/"];"-front-0jqz0zl768ws"--"/o/-0jqz0zl768wu";"-tense-0jqz0zl768x3"[label="-tense"];"+round-0jqz0zl768wh"--"-tense-0jqz0zl768x3";"+low-0jqz0zl768x5"[label="+low"];"-tense-0jqz0zl768x3"--"+low-0jqz0zl768x5";"/œ/-0jqz0zl768x8"[label="/œ/"];"+low-0jqz0zl768x5"--"/œ/-0jqz0zl768x8";"-low-0jqz0zl768xc"[label="-low"];"-tense-0jqz0zl768x3"--"-low-0jqz0zl768xc";"/ɔ/-0jqz0zl768xe"[label="/ɔ/"];"-low-0jqz0zl768xc"--"/ɔ/-0jqz0zl768xe";"-round-0jqz0zl768xx"[label="-round"];"-high-0jqz0zl768wg"--"-round-0jqz0zl768xx";"+tense-0jqz0zl768xz"[label="+tense"];"-round-0jqz0zl768xx"--"+tense-0jqz0zl768xz";"/e/-0jqz0zl768y1"[label="/e/"];"+tense-0jqz0zl768xz"--"/e/-0jqz0zl768y1";"-tense-0jqz0zl768y5"[label="-tense"];"-round-0jqz0zl768xx"--"-tense-0jqz0zl768y5";"+low-0jqz0zl768y7"[label="+low"];"-tense-0jqz0zl768y5"--"+low-0jqz0zl768y7";"/ɑ/-0jqz0zl768y9"[label="/ɑ/"];"+low-0jqz0zl768y7"--"/ɑ/-0jqz0zl768y9";"-low-0jqz0zl768yd"[label="-low"];"-tense-0jqz0zl768y5"--"-low-0jqz0zl768yd";"/ɛ/-0jqz0zl768yf"[label="/ɛ/"];"-low-0jqz0zl768yd"--"/ɛ/-0jqz0zl768yf";} +#+end_src + +#+html: Eittlandic Vowels Featural Tree + +- a {{{phon(ɑ)}}} :: +- á {{{phon(ɛ)}}} :: +- æ {{{phon(ɛ)}}} :: +- e {{{phon(e)}}} :: +- é {{{phon(ɛ)}}} :: +- i {{{phon(i)}}} :: +- í {{{phon(e)}}} :: +- o {{{phon(o)}}} :: +- ó {{{phon(ɔ)}}} :: +- u {{{phon(u)}}} :: +- ú {{{phon(o)}}} :: +- y {{{phon(y)}}} :: +- ý {{{phon(ø)}}} :: + +*** Private Data :noexport: +#+name: vowels-featural-list +- vowels + - +high + - +round + - +front + - /y/ + - -front + - /u/ + - -round + - /i/ + - -high + - +round + - +tense + - +front + - /ø/ + - -front + - /o/ + - -tense + - +low + - /œ/ + - -low + - /ɔ/ + - -round + - +tense + - /e/ + - -tense + - +low + - /ɑ/ + - -low + - /ɛ/ + +** Consonant Inventory + +*** Private Data :noexport: + +** Pitch and Stress + +** Regional accents +Eittlandic is a language in which three distinct main dialects exist +with their own accent. These three main dialects are Eastern +Eittlandic spoken in the majority Kingdom of Hylfjaltr, Western +Eittlandic spoken in the majority of the Kingdom of Ðeberget, and +Southern Eittlandic spoken on the southern parts of the island, +regardess of the legal kingdom (see the map shown in [[file:./country.md#culture][Culture]]. Three +main elements of their respective accent were presented above in [[*r » ʁ (Eastern Eittlandic)][rule +18]], [[*V / _N » Ṽ\[-tense\] ! V\[+high\] (Southern Eittlandic)][rule 20]] and [[*V^{U} » ə ! diphthongs (Western Eittlandic)][rule 22]]. + +Some regional variation can be also found in these dialects, although +less significant and less consistantly than the changes mentioned +above. As such, we can find in some rural parts of the Eastern +Eittlandic dialect area high vowels slightly more open than their +equivalent in Standard Eittlandic, as shown in table below. +#+name: vow:accent:east +#+caption: Equivalence Between Eastern Eittlandic and Standard Eittlandic +| | | +| Rural Eastern Eittlandic | Standard Eittlandic | +|--------------------------+---------------------| +| {{{phon(i)}}} | {{{phon(ɪ)}}} | +| {{{phon(y)}}} | {{{phon(ʏ)}}} | +| {{{phon(u)}}} | {{{phon(ʊ)}}} | + +On the other hand, Southern Eittlandic tends to front its {{{phon(ɑ)}}} into +{{{phon(a)}}} after nasal consonants and glides and into {{{phon(ɐ)}}} otherwise. diff --git a/docs/eittlandic/syntax.org b/docs/eittlandic/syntax.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ba35039 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/eittlandic/syntax.org @@ -0,0 +1,415 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers + +* Syntax +** Word Structure :noexport: +** Word Classes +*** Nouns :noexport: +# - What are the distributional properties of nouns? +# - What are the structural properties of nouns? +# - What are the major formally distinct subcategories of nouns? +# - What is the basic structure of the noun word (for polysynthetic +# languages) and/or noun phrases (for more isolating languages)? + +**** Countables and Uncountables :noexport: +**** Proper Nouns :noexport: +*** Pronouns and Anaphoric Clitics :noexport: +# - Does the language have free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics? +# (These are distinct from grammatical agreement.) +# - Give a chart of the free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics. +**** Personal Pronouns +**** Demonstrative Pronouns +**** Possessive Pronouns +*** Verbs :noexport: +# - What are the distributional properties of verbs? +# - What are the structural properties of verbs? +# - What are the major subclasses of verbs? +# - Describe the order of various verbal operators within the verbal +# - word or verb phrase. +# - Give charts of th +# - tense/aspect/mode, etc. Indicate major allomorphic variants. +# - Are directional and/or locational notions expressed in the verb or +# - verb phrase at all? +# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the +# paradigm have to occur in every finite verb or verb phrase? +# - Is it productiv +# verb stems, and does it have the same meaning with each one? +# (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more +# productive than others.) +# - Is this operation primarily coded morphologically, analytically, +# or lexically? Are there any exceptions to the general case? +# - Where in the verb phrase or verbal word is this operation likely +# to appear? Can it occur in more than one place? +**** Verbal Structure +**** Verbal Derivations +**** Verbal Inflexions +*** Modifiers +# - If you posit a morphosyntactic category of adjectives, give +# evidence for not grouping theseforms with the verbs or nouns. What +# characterizes a form as being an adjective in this language? +# - How can you characterize semantically the class of concepts coded +# by this formal category? +# - Do adjectives agr +# noun class)? +# - What kind of syst +# - How high can a fluent native speaker count without resorting +# either to words from another language or to a generic word like +# /many/? Exemplify the system up to this point. +# - Do numerals agree with their head nouns (number, case, noun +# class, ...)? +**** Descriptive Adjectives :noexport: +**** Non-Numeral Quantifiers :noexport: +**** Numerals + +*** Adverbs :noexport: +# - What characterikes a form as being an adverb in this language? If +# you posit a distinct class of adverbs, argue for why these forms +# should not be treated as nouns, verbs, or adjectives. +# - For each kind of adverb listed in this section, list a few members +# of the type, and specify whether there are any restrictions +# relavite to that type, e.g. where they can come in a clause, any +# morphemes common to the type, etc. +# - Are any of these classes of adverbs related to older +# complement-taking (matrix) verbs? +*** Adpositions :noexport: +*** Grammatical Particules :noexport: +** Constituants Order Typology :noexport: +*** Constituants Order in Main Clauses +# - What is the neutral order of free elements in the unit? +# - Are there variations? +# - How do the variant orders function? +# - Specific to the main clause constituent order: What is the +# pragmatically neutral order of constituents (A/S, P, and V) in +# basic clauses of the language? +*** Constituants Order in Nominal Clauses +# - Describe the order(s) of elements in the noun phrase. +*** Constituants Order in Verbal Clauses +# - Where do auxliari +# verb? +# - Where do verb-phrase adverbs occur with respect to the verb and +# auxiliaries? +*** Adpositional Phrases +# - Is the language dominantly prepositional or post-positional? Give +# examples. +# - Do many adpositions come from nouns or verbs? +*** Comparatives +# - Does the language have one or more grammaticalized comparative +# constructions? If so, what is the order of the standard, the +# marker and the quality by which an item is compared to the +# standard? +*** Questions +# - In yes/no questions, if there is a question particle, where does +# it occur? +# - In information qu +** Structure of a Nominal Group +*** Composed Words :noexport: +# - Is there noun-noun compounding that results in a noun (e.g. +# /windshield/)? +# - How do you know it is compounding? +# - Is there noun-verb (or verb-noun) compounding that results in a +# noun (e.g. /pickpocket/, /scarecrow/)? +# - Are these process +# can-opener)? How common is compounding? +*** Denominalization :noexport: +# - Are there any processes (productive or not) that form a verb from +# a noun? +# - An adjective from a noun? +# - An adverb from a noun? +*** Numbers :noexport: +# - Is number express +# - Is the distinction between singular and non-singular obligatory, +# optional, or completely absent in the noun phrase? +# - If number marking is “optional”, when does it tend to occur, and +# when does it tend not to occur? +# - If number marking is obligatory, is number overtly expressed for +# all noun phrases or only some subclasses of noun phrases, such as +# animate? +# - What non-singular distinctions are there? +*** Grammatical Case +# - Do nouns exhibit morphological case? +# - If so, what are the cases? (The functions of the cases will be +# elaborated in lat +**** Cases in Modern Eittlandic +Although seldom visible, as described in [[file:./syntax.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], cases still +remain part of the Eittlandic grammar, expressed through its syntax +rather than explicit marking on its nouns and adjectives. Four +different grammatical cases exist in this language: the *nominative*, +*accusative*, *genitive*, and *dative* case. +- The *nominative* case represents the subject of a sentence, that is, + the subject of intransitive clauses and the agent of transitive + clauses. As we’ll see below, it is morphologically marked only in + dialects other than Standard Eittlandic, and only if the word is a + strong masculine word. +- On the other hand *accusative*, like Old Norse, usually marks the + object of a verb, but it can also express time-related ideas such as + a duration in time, or after some prepositions. It is also the + default case when a noun has no clear status in a clause, and it can + as such serve as a vocative. +- *Dative* usually marks indirect objects of verbs in Old Norse, though + it can also often mark direct objects depending on the verb used. + +**** Case Marking +Although present in Early Old Norse, the use of grammatical cases has +been on the decline since the Great Vowel Shift (see [[file:phonology.md#great-vowel-shift][Phonology: Great +Vowel Shift]]). Due to the general loss of word-final short vowels and +to regularization of its nouns, Eittlandic lost almost all of weak +nouns’ inflexions and a good amount in its strong nouns’ inflexions. +On top of this, the root of most nouns got regularized, getting rid of +former umlauts. Hence, while in Old Norse one might find the table +below presented in Cleasby and Vigfusson (1874), Modern Eittlandic is +simplified to the table following it. + +#+name: tbl:old-norse-noun-inflexions +#+caption: 1st declension of strong nouns and declensions of masculine weak nouns in Old Norse +| / | | | | | | +| | | Strong Masculine | Strong Feminine | Strong Neuter | Weak Masculine | +|---+------------+------------------+-----------------+---------------+----------------| +| | Sing. Nom. | heim-r | tíð | skip | tím-i | +| | Acc. | heim | tíð | skip | tím-a | +| | Gen. | heim-s | tíð-ar | skip-s | tím-a | +| | Dat. | heim-i | tíð | skip-i | tím-a | +| | Plur. Nom. | heim-ar | tíð-ir | skip | tím-ar | +| | Acc. | heim-a | tíð-ir | skip | tím-a | +| | Gen. | heim-a | tíð-a | skip-a | tím-a | +| | Dat. | heim-um | tíð-um | skip-um | tím-um | + +#+name: tbl:eittlandic-example-noun-inflexions +#+caption: Declensions for strong and weak nouns in Modern Eittlandic +| / | | | | | +| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter | Weak Nouns | +|---+------------+---------------+---------------+------------| +| | Sing. Nom. | heim-r | skip | tím | +| | Acc. | heim | skip | tím | +| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s | +| | Dat. | heim | skip | tím | +| | Plur. Nom. | heim-r | skip | tím-r | +| | Acc. | heim | skip | tím | +| | Gen. | heim-ar | skip-s | tím-s | +| | Dat. | heim-um | skip-um | tím-um | + +As you can see, a good amount of declensions disappeared from nouns, +with only four marked cases for strong common nouns and two for strong +neuter and weak nouns. The declension system completely merged weak +nouns which are no longer distinguished by gender. Strong masculine +and strong feminine also got merged into strong common. + +Declensions are no longer productive in almost all Modern Eittlandic +dialects. They are still mostly used in formal and written speech, but +they are less and less used in less formal circumstances and in oral +speech. The Royal Academy for Literature, which authored Standard +Eittlandic, even recommends not using grammatical cases when using +this dialect as they are reduntand with other syntactic strategies. +While the recommendation is mostly followed, speakers still tend to +use the singular genetive declension oraly. Younger folks at the time +of writing even tend to regularize it as /-ar/ for strong neuter and +weak nouns. + +The only exception to declensions no longer being productive is in the +Hylfjaltr Kingdom’s exclave in southern Eittland where speakers of its +local dialect tend instead to favor strong nouns for newer terms. +Hence, while most dialects agree on “internet” (pl.nom /internetr/, +pl.dat /internetum/) being a weak noun, this dialect treats it as either +a strong feminine (sg.gen /internetar/, pl.nom&acc /internetr/, pl.dat +/internetum/) or a strong neuter (sg.gen /internets/, pl.dat /internetum/) +--- the difference is due to subdivisions in said dialect, mainly +between rural and urban areas favoring the former and the latter +respectively. + +There are some regular exceptions to the declension system. The first +one, inherited from Old Norse, is the /-r/ suffix becoming /-n/ or /-l/ when +a noun ends with an «n» or an «l» respectively, hence the table below +showing the declensions of strong masculine /himn/ (/heaven/) and strong +feminine /hafn/ (/harbour/, /haven/). +#+name: tbl:irregular-noun-declensions +| | | | +| | himn | hafn | +|------------+--------+--------| +| Sing. Nom. | himnn | hafnn | +| Acc. | himn | hafn | +| Gen. | himnar | hafnar | +| Dat. | himn | hafn | +| Plur. Nom. | himnn | hafnn | +| Acc. | himn | hafn | +| Gen. | himnar | hafnar | +| Dat. | himnum | hafnum | + +During the last five centuries, the root of the word got regularized +so that only one or two forms are allowed. Due to umlaut or ablaut, it +is possible the main vowel of a word changes between its singular and +plural form, even sometimes affecting its dative form. These changes +are due to old vowels long gone since --- with most even gone by the +time of Old Norse. These changes mainly remains in a few common words. +The table below gives some examples of such irregularities. These +words are marked as irregular in the dictionary. +#+name: tbl:irregularities-root-nouns + | | | | | | + | | kettle (m.) | foot (m.) | book (f.) | water (n.) | + |------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+------------| + | Sing. Nom. | ketll | fótr | bók | vatn | + | Gen. | ketl | fót | bók | vatn | + | Acc. | ketlar | fótar | bókar | vatn | + | Dat. | ketl | fót | bók | vatn | + | Plur. Nom. | katll | fœtr | bœkr | vótnn | + | Acc. | katl | fœt | bœkr | vótn | + | Gen. | katl | fœt | bœk | vótn | + | Dat. | katlum | fótum | bókum | vótnum | + +*** Articles and Demonstratives +# - Do noun phrases have articles? +# - If so, are they obligatory or optional, and under what +# circumstances do they occur? +# - Are they separate words, or bound morphemes? +# - Is there a class of classes of demonstratives as distinct from +# articles? +# - How many degrees of distance are there in the system of +# demontsratives? +# - Are there other distinctions beside distances? + +When the noun of a nominal group is not a mass noun or a proper noun, +an article must accompany it, except for indefinite plural nouns. + +**** Indefinite Article +The indefinite article is /einn/, the same term as /one/ in Eittlandic. It +agrees in declension with its noun, though it is to be noted its +declension is irregular, as seen in table below. Similarly, other +numerals have declensions as discussed in [[file:word-structure-and-classes.md#numerals][Word Classes: Numerals]]. +#+name: tbl:declension-einn +| | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | +|------+-----------+----------+--------| +| Nom. | einn | ein | eit | +| Acc. | ein | ein | eit | +| Dat. | ein | einn | eits | +| Gen. | einn | ein | eit | + +**** Definite articles +As in other scandinavian languages, definite articles in Eittlandic +act as suffixes to the noun and fully replace its declension as it has +case marking itself. The full declension table of definite articles +can be found in the table below. As we can see, the definite articles +underwent an important regularization as well as merging strong neuter +and weak nouns together. +#+name: tbl:definite-articles +| / | | | | +| | | Strong Common | Strong Neuter and Weak Nouns | +|---+------------+---------------+------------------------------| +| | Sing. Nom. | -(i)nn | -(i)t | +| | Acc. | -(i)n | -(i)t | +| | Gen. | -(i)ns | -(i)ts | +| | Dat. | -(i)n | -(i)t | +| | Plur. Nom. | -(i)nn | -(i)tr | +| | Acc. | -(i)n | -(i)t | +| | Gen. | -(i)n | -(i)t | +| | Dat. | -(i)num | -(i)tum | + +The initial /i/ is only used when using the definite articles as a +suffix would cause a consonant cluster forbidden by Eittlandic +phonology, otherwise it is omitted. An example of the former case is +with /vatn/ (/water/) which becomes /vatnits/ when in its definite singular +genitive form, while /øy/ (/island/) becomes /øyns/ in the same form. Like +the indefinite article, the suffix agrees in gender, agreeing either +with strong masculine or feminine words (or as established before, +strong common) or with strong neuter and weak nouns. + +The use of definite articles with nouns is further discussed in +[[file:./syntax.md#definiteness][Definiteness]]. + +*** Definiteness +Definiteness in Eittlandic serves multiple purposes. Its most obvious +one is to distinguish between an indefinite and a definite entity, as +in English /a dog/ or /the dog/, respectively /einn hundr/ and /hundinn/, as +discussed in [[file:./syntax.md#articles-and-demonstratives][Articles and Demonstratives]]. + +However, definiteness is also necessary with suffixed possessives and +demonstrative. + +*** Possessives +# - How are possessors expressed in the noun phrase? +# - Do nouns agree with their possessors? Do possessors agree with +# possessed nouns? Neither, or both? +# - Is there a distinction between alienable and inalienable +# possesson? +# - Are there other types of possession? +# - When the possessor is a full noun, where does it usually come with +# respect to the possessed noun? +*** Gender +# - Is there a noun class system? +# - What are the classes and how are they manifested in the noun +# phrase? +# - What dimension of reality is most central to the noun class system +# (e.g. animacy, shape, function, etc.)? What other dimensions are +# relevant? +# - Do the classifiers occur with numerals? Adjectives? Verbs? +# - What is their function in these contexts? +Eittlandic inherited from Old Norse a gender system divided into three +genders: male, female, and neuter. Although the number of elements +marking it declined during its evolution, Eittlandic still marks +gender in its strong nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and to a certain +degree in its articles. However, as mentioned in [[file:./syntax.md#case-marking][Case Marking]], case +marking and by extensions gender marking is slowly disappearing in +Modern Eittlandic nouns and adjectives. + +Due to the presence of declensions with strong nouns and +adjectives, its pronouns, and to a certain degree different articles, +it can still be said Eittlandic is a gendered language although it +doesn’t hold much importance in its grammar anymore. Since strong +nouns aren’t productive anymore and weak nouns lost all obvious gender +differences, we can even consider gender as not productive anymore in +Eittlandic and bound to eventually disappear. In fact, the loss of +gender is even stronger in Standard Eittlandic due to the theoretical +absence of declensions in this dialect. + +In case a strong noun is used with a strong adjective, both will agree +in number and gender. + ++ Examples: + - hvítr hund + + white.m.sg.acc dog.m.sg.acc + + white dog + - langir tungir + + long.f.pl.acc tongues.f.pl.acc + + long tongues + +*** Diminution and Augmentation :noexport: +# - Does the language employ diminutive and/or augmentative operators +# in the noun or noun phrase? +# - Questions to answ +# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the +# paradigm have to occur in every full noun phrase? +# - Is it productiv +# full noun phras +# one? (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more +# so than others.) +# - Is this operation primarily expressed lexically, +# morphologically, or analytically? +# - Where in the noun phrase is this operation likely to be located? +# - Can it occur in more than one place? + +** Predicates and Linked Constructions :noexport: +*** Nominal Predicates +# - How are proper inclusion and equative predicates formed? +# - What restrictions are there, if any, on the TAM marking of such +# clauses? +*** Adjective Predicates +# - How are predicate adjective formed? (Include a separate section on +# predicate adjectives only if they are structurally distinct from +# predicate nominals.) +*** Locative Predicat +# - How are locational clauses (or predicate locatives) formed? +*** Existential Predicates +# - How are existential clauses formed? (Give examples in different +# tense/aspects, especially if there is significant variation.) +# - How are negative +# - Are there extended uses of existential morphology? (Provide +# pointers to other relevant sections of the grammar.) +*** Possessive Clauses +# - How are possessiv +** Verbal Groups Structure :noexport: +** Intransitive Clauses :noexport: +** Ditransitive Clauses :noexport: +** Dependent Type Clauses :noexport: +*** Non-Finite +*** Semi-Finite +*** Finite diff --git a/docs/eittlandic/typology.org b/docs/eittlandic/typology.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aa2b607 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/eittlandic/typology.org @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers + +* Typological Outline of the Eittlandic Language +# - Is the language dominantly isolating or polysynthetic? +# - If the language is at all polysynthetic, is it dominantly +# agglutinative or fusional? Give examples of its dominant pattern +# and any secondary patterns. +# - If the language is at all agglutinative, is it dominantly +# prefixing, suffixing or neither? +# - Illustrate the major and secondary patterns (including infixation, +# stem modification, reduplication, suprasegmental modification, and +# suppletion). +# - If the language is at all polysynthetic, is it dominantly +# "head-marking", "dependent-marking", or mixed? +# - Give some examples of each type of marking the language exhibits. +Over the last centuries, Eittlandic evolved to become a language +leaning more and more towards an analytic language, losing its +fusional aspect Old Eittlandic once had. It grammar now greatly relies +on its syntax as well as on grammatical particules rather than on its +morphology. Let’s take the following sentence as an example. + +- Barn etar fisk + + barn et-ar fisk + + child.nom eat-3sg fish.acc + + A child is eating a fish + +In this sentence, the word order helps us understand the child is the +subject of the sentence while its subject is /fisk/, although we have no +information on their number; the sentence could also very well mean +/children are eating fishes/. Unlike in Old Eittlandic where we could +have the following sentences. + +- Barn etar fiska + + barn et-ar fiska + + child.nom eat-3sg fish-pl.acc + + A child is eating fishes +- Fiska etar barn + + fisk-a et-ar barn + + fish-pl.acc eat-3sg child.nom + + A child is eating fishes + +Both have the same meaning as the Eittlandic sentence. However, the +near-complete (or even complete in Standard Eittlandic) loss of case +marking makes the sentence /fisk barn etar/ much more gruesome. + +- Fisk etar barn + + fisk et-ar barn + + fish.nom eat-3sg barn.acc + + A fish is eating a child + +Eittlandic is a V-2 language, meaning in most cases, finite verbs are +in second position in their clause and may be in first position +interrogative clauses and dependent clauses, as shown below. +- Han talð mér þat kom han hér í gær + + han talð mér þat kom han hér í=gær + + 3sg.m.nom tell-3sg.pret 1sg.dat that come.3sg.pret 3sg.m.nom here yesterday + + He told me he came here yesterday + +Loss of case marking also affected adjectives which share most of +their declensions with nouns. The parts where Eittlandic retains its +fusional aspect is with verbs, where loss of its words’ final vowel +had much less impact, as we could see in /barn fisk etar/. In this case, +/etar/ is the third person singular declension of the verb /et/, a weak +verb. diff --git a/docs/headers b/docs/headers new file mode 100644 index 0000000..63d4956 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/headers @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +# -*- mode: org -*- +#+AUTHOR: Lucien Cartier-Tilet +#+EMAIL: lucien@phundrak.com +#+CREATOR: Lucien Cartier-Tilet +#+LANGUAGE: en + +# ### ORG OPTIONS ############################################################## + +#+options: H:4 broken_links:mark email:t ^:{} tex:dvisvgm toc:nil +#+keywords: conlang, idéolangue, langue, langues, linguistique, linguistics, phundrak, drakpa +#+startup: content align hideblocks +#+property: header-args:emacs-lisp :noweb yes :exports none :eval yes :cache yes +#+property: header-args:dot :dir img :exports results :eval yes :cache yes :class gentree + +# ### MACROS ################################################################### +#+macro: newline @@html:
@@ +#+macro: latex-html @@latex:$1@@@@html:$2@@ +#+macro: phon @@html:/$1/@@ +#+macro: v @@html:$1@@ +#+macro: begin-largetable @@html:
@@ +#+macro: end-largetable @@html:
@@ +#+macro: recon *@@html:$1@@ +#+macro: rune (eval (conlanging-to-org-runes $1 'eittlandic)) diff --git a/docs/index.org b/docs/index.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..78af458 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/index.org @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +#+title: P’undrak’s Constructed Languages +#+setupfile: headers + +* P’undrak’s Constructed Languages +** Introduction +Hi, I’m P’undrak (pronounced {{{phon(pʰynɖak̚)}}}), also known as Lucien +Cartier-Tilet. I create constructed languages and worlds, both for fun +and for my literary universe. As you might have guessed with the name +of this website, you will find here the documentation of my public +constructed languages. If you want to know more about me, you can head +to my [[https://phundrak.com/en][main website]]. diff --git a/docs/proto-nyqy/culture-and-people.org b/docs/proto-nyqy/culture-and-people.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b642cd5 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/proto-nyqy/culture-and-people.org @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers +* Culture of the Proto-Ñyqy People +While the Proto-Ñyqy is the most well attested cultural and linguistic +family, the temporal distance between the Proto-Ñyqy people and us +makes it extremely hard to reconstruct anything. The various branches +of the Ñyqy family evolved over the past eight to twelve past +millenia, and some changed pretty drastically compared to their +ancestors. Therefore, do not expect an in-depth description of what +their society was like, but rather what could be considered an +overview compared to some other culture descriptions. + +** The Name of the Language +First, it is important to know where the name of this language came +from. Since it has such a wide spread in this world, giving it a name +based on where its daughter branches went would give it a very long +name, or with a shorter one we would have very boring or limited names +--- the “Proto-Northern-Southern” language doesn’t sound very good, +and the “Proto-Mojhal-Andelian” language leaves other major branches +out, such as the Pritian branch which we cannot ommit, just as the +Mojhal and Andelian branches. So, researchers went with the +reconstructed word for the inclusive /we/: {{{recon(ñyqy)}}}. It itself is a +coumpound word made up of {{{recon(ñy)}}}, which is the first person +pronoun, and {{{recon(qy)}}} which is sometimes used as a grammatical +morpheme indicating a plural --- it also means six, as we will later +on, the number system of the Proto-Ñyqy people was a bit complex. + +** Geographical Location +It is often very hard to find the location of very old reconstructed +languages, such as the Proto-Mojhal language itself which location is +still not clearly known despite its name. But when it comes to the +Proto-Ñyqy people, we have a surprisingly good idea of where they +were: in the hot rainforests of the northern main continent, most +probably near nowadays’ Rhesodia. We know this thanks to some of their +reconstructed words which are typical for the other people that lived +or still live in hot rainforests, and these terms are older than the +split between the northern and southern groups. For instance, both +groups have a common ancestor word for /bongo/, {{{recon(zebec)}}}, as well as +for the /bonobo/, {{{recon(pœwec)}}}, which are only found in these +rainforests. + +** Society +The Proto-Ñyqy was a matriachal society, led most likely by older +women who had an important spiritual role. This cultural trait is +found in numerous daughter branches of the Ñyqy family, and it would +be unreasonable to think a large amount of them would change in the +same way despite many branches being most likely disconnected from one +another, and the patriarchal branches almost all retained women as +their spiritual figurehead, even if political power passed in the +hands of men. + +** Religion and Beliefs +This question might be the hardest of all to answer, as we can only +speculate based on the religions the daughter cultures of the Ñyqy +family had, as well as the few hints we can get through the Proto-Ñyqy +vocabulary. Through this keyhole, dusted by millenia of cultural and +linguistic changes, we can offer an initial answer. It seems the +Proto-Ñyqy reveered several gods, with however one god or goddes above +them called {{{recon(Qiisci)}}}, that might have been to them some form of +queen or some sort of god for the gods themselves. We can find for +instance this figure in the Mojhal patheon under the name of Kísce. +Other than the parental figure of this divinity, their role is vastly +unknown. + +** Personal Names :noexport: diff --git a/docs/proto-nyqy/dictionary.org b/docs/proto-nyqy/dictionary.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6d812e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/proto-nyqy/dictionary.org @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers +* Dictionary +** B +*** {{{recon(beñ)}}} + 1. (n) tooth/teeth +*** {{{recon(bin)}}} + 1. (n) something bad, badness + 2. (n) mischief, ill-will, maliciousness + 3. (n) dirtiness + +** C +*** {{{recon(cø)}}} + 1. (pron) my, first person singular possessive pronoun + +** E + +** G + +** I + +** J + +** M + +** N +*** {{{recon(noc)}}} + 1. (n) old age + 2. (n) elderly person +*** {{{recon(núc)}}} + 1. (n) youth + 2. (n) youngster, teenager + +** Ñ +*** {{{recon(ñocm)}}} + 1. (n) human being + 2. (n) someone +*** {{{recon(ñe)}}} + 1. (n) house + +** O + +** Ø + +** Œ + +** P +*** {{{recon(pœwec)}}} + 1. (n) bonobo +*** {{{recon(pom)}}} + 1. genitive particle + +** Q +*** {{{recon(qy)}}} + 1. (pron) first person singular + +** S + +** U + +** Ú + +** W + +** Y +*** {{{recon(yq)}}} + 1. demonstrative of proximity, designating something visible by but + far from both speakers. + +** Z +*** {{{recon(zebec)}}} + 1. (n) bongo (antelope) diff --git a/docs/proto-nyqy/functional-system.org b/docs/proto-nyqy/functional-system.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..15e7fb6 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/proto-nyqy/functional-system.org @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers +* Functional System +** Grammatical Relationship :noexport: +# Examplify some simple intransitive, transitive, and ditransitive +# clauses. Three-argument clauses may not unequivocally exist. +# - What are the grammatical erlations of this language? Give +# morphosyntactic evidence for each one that you propose. +# - Subject? +# - Ergative? +# - Absolutive? +# - Direct object? +# - Indirect object? +# There are basically four possible sources of evidence for +# grammatical relations: +# - morphological case on NPs +# - person marking on verbs +# - constituent order +# - some pragmatic hierarchy +# - Is the system of grammatical relations in basic (affirmative, +# declarative) clauses organized according to a +# nominative/accusative, ergative/absolutive, tripartite, or some +# other system? +# - Is there a split system for organizing grammatical relations? If +# so, what determines the split? +# - Is there split instransitivity? If so, what semantic or +# discourse/pragmatic factor conditions the split? +# - Does the system for pronouns and/or person marking on verbs +# operate on the same basis as that of full NPs? +# - Are there different grammatical-relation systems depending on +# the clause type (e.g. main vs. dependent clauses, affirmative +# vs. negative clauses)? +# - Are there different grammatical-relation assignment systems +# depending on the tense and/or aspect of the clause? +# - Are there any syntactic processes (e.g. conjunction reduction, +# relativization) that operate on an ergative/absolutive basis? +** Constructions Linked to Voice and Valence :noexport: +** Valence Increase :noexport: +*** Causative +*** Applicative +*** Dative Shift +*** Dative Interest +*** External Possession diff --git a/docs/proto-nyqy/img b/docs/proto-nyqy/img new file mode 120000 index 0000000..3f0b6df --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/proto-nyqy/img @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../.vuepress/public/img \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/proto-nyqy/index.org b/docs/proto-nyqy/index.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c5441c --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/proto-nyqy/index.org @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers + +* Proto-Ñyqy + +The documentation is about a conlang I created. However, it will be +written as an in-universe document would be. Therefore, any reference +to other works, documents or people will be completely fictional. If +there is somewhere written along the lines of “there needs to be more +research done on the subject”, this simply means I haven’t written +anything on this subject, and I may or may not plan to. As you might +notice, the style of writing in this document will be inspired mainly +by the book /Indo-European Language and Culture/ by Benjamin W. Forston. +Go read this book if you haven’t already, it’s extremely interesting +(except for the part with the Old Irish and Vedic people and what +their kings and queens did with horses, I wish to unread that). diff --git a/docs/proto-nyqy/introduction.org b/docs/proto-nyqy/introduction.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..432017d --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/proto-nyqy/introduction.org @@ -0,0 +1,273 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers + +* Introduction +** Language Evolution +We are not sure which was the first language ever spoken in our world. +Was there even one primordial language, or were there several that +spontaneously appeared around our world here and there? We cannot know +for certain, this is too far back in our history. Some scientists +estimate the firsts of our kind to be gifted the ability to speak +lived some hundred of thousand of years back, maybe twice this period +even. There is absolutely no way to know what happened at that time +with non-physical activities, and we can only guess. We can better +guess how they lived, and how they died, than how they interacted with +each other, what was their social interaction like, and what were the +first words ever spoken on our planet. Maybe they began as grunts of +different pitches, with hand gestures, then two vowels became +distinct, a couple of consonants, and the first languages sprung from +that. This, we do not know, and this is not the subject of this book +anyways. + +What we do know is, languages evolve as time passes. One language can +morph in the way it is pronounced, in the way some words are used, in +the way they are shaped by their position and role in the sentence, by +how they are organized with each other. A language spoken two +centuries back will sound like its decendent today, but with a +noticeable difference. Jumping a couple of centuries back, and we lost +some intelligibility, and some sentences sound alien to us. A +millenium back, and while the language resonates, we cannot understand +it anymore. Going the other way around, travelling to the future, +would have the same effect, except that we would not necessarily +follow only one language, but several, for in different places, +different changes would take place. As time goes by, these differences +become more and more proeminent, and what was once the same langage +becomes several dialects that become less and less similar to one +another, until we end up with several languages, sister between +themselves, daughters to the initial language. + +** Relating Languages Between Themselves +We are not sure who first emited the theory of language evolution; +this has been lost to time during the great collapse two thousand +years back, and only a fraction of the knowledge from back then +survived the flow of time. We’re lucky even to know about this. It’s +the Professor Loqbrekh who, in 3489, first deciphered some books that +were found two decades prior, written in Énanonn. They described the +principle of language evolution, and how language families could be +reconstructed, how we could know languages are related, and a hint on +how mother languages we do not know could be reconstructed. The +principle on how historical linguistics are the following: + +#+begin_quote +If two languages share a great number of coincidentally similar +features, especially in their grammar, so much so that it cannot be +explained by chance only, then these two languages are surely related. +#+end_quote + +By this process, we can recreate family trees of languages. Some are +more closely related to one another than some other, which are more +distant. Sometimes, it is even unsure if a language is related to a +language tree; maybe the language simply borrowed a good amount of +vocabulary from another language that we either now of, or died since. + +The best attested languages are the ones we have written record of. In +a sense, we are lucky: while we do know a vast majority of the written +documents prior to the great collapse were lost during this sad event, +we still have a good amount of them left in various languages we can +analyze, and we still find some that were lost before then and found +back again. The earliest written record we ever found was from the +Loho language, the oldest member of the Mojhal language tree attested; +the Mojhal tree has been itself linked to the Ñyqy tree some fifty +years ago by the Pr Khorlan (3598). + +#+name: tree-language-family +#+begin_src dot :file proto-nyqy/nyqy-family-tree.png :exports none +digraph d { + graph[dpi=300,bgcolor="transparent"]; + node[shape=plaintext]; + ranksep=.75; size="7.5,7.5"; + + { + "-10000" -> "-8000" -> "-6000" -> "-5000" -> "-4500" -> + "-4000" -> "-3500" -> "-2000" -> + "-1000" -> "-500" -> present; + } + + { + rank=same; + "-8000"; + protonyqy[label="Proto-Ñyqy\n6,000 to 10,000 years ago"]; + } + + { + rank=same; + "-5000"; + protoma[label="Proto-Mojhal-Andelian\n4,000 to 6,000 years ago"]; + } + + { + rank=same; + "-4500"; + prototiltinian[label="Proto-Tiltinian\nca. 4,500 years ago"]; + protoandelian[label="Proto-Andelian\nca. 4,000 to 5,000 years ago"]; + } + + { + rank=same; + "-4000"; + protomojhal[label="Proto-Mojhal\nca. 4,000 years ago"]; + } + + { + rank=same; + "-3500"; + loho[label="Loho\nca. 3,500 years ago"]; + } + + { + rank=same; + "-2000"; + oldpritian[label="Old Pritian\nca. 2,000 years ago"]; + "ne’ic"[label="Ñe’ic\nca. 2,500 years ago"]; + } + + { + rank=same; + "-1000"; + oryora[label="Old Ryora\nca. 1,300 years ago"]; + oenanonn[label="Old Énanonn\nca. 900 years ago"]; + omanniki[label="Old Manniki\nca. 1,200 years ago"]; + midpritian[label="Middle Pritian\n 1,100 years ago"]; + } + + { + rank=same; + "-500"; + oauc[label="Old Auc\n600 years ago"]; + mmanniki[label="Middle Manniki\nca. 400 years ago"]; + } + + { + rank=same; + present; + enanonn[label="Énanonn"]; + ryora[label="Ryora"]; + auc[label="Auc"]; + manniki[label="Manniki"]; + pritian[label="Pritian"]; + } + + protonyqy -> protoma; + protonyqy -> oldpritian; + protonyqy -> prototiltinian; + + protoma -> protomojhal; + protoma -> protoandelian; + + protomojhal -> loho; + protomojhal -> "ne’ic"; + + "ne’ic" -> oenanonn -> enanonn; + "ne’ic" -> omanniki -> mmanniki -> manniki; + + protoandelian -> oryora -> ryora; + protoandelian -> oauc -> auc; + + oldpritian -> midpritian -> pritian; +} +#+end_src + +#+html: Ñyqy Family Tree + + +** Principles of Historical Linguistics +So, how does historical linguistics work? How does one know what the +mother language of a bunch of other languages is? In historical +linguistics, we study the similarities between languages and their +features. If a feature is obviously common, there is a good chance it +is inherited from a common ancestor. The same goes for words, we +generally take the average of several words, we estimate what their +ancestor word was like, and we estimate what sound change made these +words evolve the way they did. If this sound change consistently works +almost always, we know we hit right: sound changes are very regular, +and exceptions are very rare. And this is how we can reconstruct a +mother language that was lost to time thanks to its existing daughter +languages. + +But as we go back in time, it becomes harder and harder to get +reliable data. Through evolution, some information is lost --- maybe +there once was an inflectional system that was lost in all daughter +languages, and reconstructing that is nigh impossible. And since no +reconstruction can be attested, we need a way to distinguish these +from attested forms of words. This is why attested words are simply +written like “this”, while reconstructed words are written with a +preceding star like “{{{recon(this)}}}”. Sometimes, to distinguish both from +the text, you will see the word of interest be written either in *bold* +or /italics/. This bears no difference in meaning. + +** On Proto-Languages +As we go back in time, there is a point at which we have to stop: we +no longer find any related language to our current family, or we can’t +find enough evidence that one of them is part of the family and if +they are related, they are very distantly related. This language we +cannot go beyond is called a proto-language, and it is the mother +language of the current language family tree. In our case, the +Proto-Ñyqy language, spoken by the Ñyqy people, is the mother language +of the Ñyqy language family tree and the ancestor of the more widely +known Mojhal languages. + +There is something I want to insist on very clearly: a proto-language +is not a “prototype” language as we might think at first --- it is not +an imperfect, inferior language that still needs some iterations +before becoming a full-fledged language. It has been proven multiple +times multiple times around the world, despite the best efforts of the +researchers of a certain empire, that all languages are equally +complex regardless of ethnicity, education, time, and place. Languages +that are often described as “primitive” are either called so as a way +to indicate they are ancient, and therefore close to a proto-language, +or they are described so by people trying to belittle people based on +incorrect belief that some ethnicities are somehow greater or better +than others. This as well has been proven multiple times that this is +not true. A proto-language bore as much complexity as any of the +languages currently spoken around the world, and a primitive language +in linguistic terms is a language close in time to these +proto-languages, such as the Proto-Mojhal language (which is also in +turn the proto-language of the Mojhal tree). The only reason these +languages might seem simpler is because we do not know them and cannot +know them in their entierty, so of course some features are missing +from it, but they were surely there. + +Note that “Proto-Ñyqy” is the usual and most widely accepted spelling +of the name of the language and culture, but other spellings are +accepted such as “Proto Ñy Qy”, “Proto Ñy Ħy”, “Proto Ḿy Qy”, or +“Proto Ḿy Ħy”, each with their equivalent with one word only after the +“Proto” part. As we’ll see later in [[file:phonology.md#consonants][Phonology: Consonants]], the actual +pronunciation of consonants is extremely uncertain, and each one of +these orthographies are based on one of the possible pronunciations of +the term {{{recon(ñyqy)}}}. In this book, we’ll use the so called +“coronal-only” orthography, unless mentionned otherwise. Some people +also have the very bad habit of dubbing this language and culture as +simply “Ñyqy” (or one of its variants), but this is very wrong, as the +term “Ñyqy” designates the whole familiy of languages and cultures +that come from the Proto-Ñyqy people. The Tiltinian languages are as +much Tiltinian as they are Ñyqy languages, but that does not mean they +are the same as the Proto-Ñyqy language, even if they are relatively +close in terms of time. When speaking about something that is “Ñyqy”, +we are generally speaking about daughter languages and cultures and +not about the Proto-Ñyqy language and culture itself. + +Note also we usually write this language with groups of morphemes, +such as a noun group, as one word like we do with {{{recon(ñyqy)}}}. +However, when needed we might separate the morphemes by a dash, such +as in {{{recon(ñy-qy)}}}. + +** Reconstructing the Culture Associated to the Language +While the comparative method described in [[file:introduction.md#principles-of-historical-linguistics][Principles of Historical +Linguistics]] work on languages, we also have good reasons to believe +they also work of culture: if elements of different cultures that +share a language from the same family also share similar cultural +elements, we have good reasons to believe these elements were +inherited from an earlier stage of a common culture. This is an entire +field of research in its own right, of course, but linguistics also +come in handy when trying to figure out the culture of the Ñyqy +people: the presence of certain words can indicate the presence of +what they meant, while the impossibility of recreating a word at this +stage of the language might indicate it only appeared in later stages +of its evolution, and it only influenced parts of the decendents of +the culture and language. For instance, the lack of word for “honey” +in Proto-Ñyqy but the ability to reconstruct a separate word for both +the northern and southern branches strongly suggests both branches +discovered honey only after the Proto-Ñyqy language split up into +different languages, and its people in different groups, while the +easy reconstruction of {{{recon(mygú)}}} signifying /monkey/ strongly suggests +both branches knew about this animal well before these two groups +split up. More on their culture in [[file:culture-and-people.md][Culture and People]]. diff --git a/docs/proto-nyqy/phonology.org b/docs/proto-nyqy/phonology.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..af06e61 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/proto-nyqy/phonology.org @@ -0,0 +1,290 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers +* Phonetics and Phonology of Proto-Ñyqy +** Phonetic Inventory and Translitteration +*** Vowels +As we stand today, eight vowels were reconstructed for Proto-Ñyqy, as +presented in the table below. + +#+NAME: table:vowels:trans +#+CAPTION: Proto-Ñyqy Vowels +#+ATTR_LATEX: :placement [htb] +| | antérieures | postérieures | +|-------------+-------------+--------------| +| fermées | y | ú | +| pré-fermées | i | u | +| mi-fermées | ø | œ | +| mi-ouvertes | e | o | + +Below is a short guide to their pronunciation: +- e :: {{{phon(*ɛ)}}} as in General American English /“bed”/ [bɛd] +- i :: {{{phon(*ɪ)}}} as in General American English /“bit”/ [bɪt] +- o :: {{{phon(*ɔ)}}} as in General American English /“thought”/ [θɔːt] +- ø :: {{{phon(*ø)}}} as in French /“peu”/ [pø] +- œ :: {{{phon(*ɤ)}}} as in Scottish Gaelic /“doirbh”/ [d̪̊ɤrʲɤv] +- u :: {{{phon(*ʊ)}}} as in General American English /“hook”/ [hʊ̞k] +- ú :: {{{phon(*u)}}} as in General American English /“boot”/ [bu̟ːt] +- y :: {{{phon(*y)}}} as in French /“dune”/ [d̪yn] + +We also have a ninth vowel, noted «ə» which denotes an unknown vowel. +It is most likely this was before the Proto-Ñyqy breakup a simple +schwa standing where a vowel got reduced either at an earlier stage +than Proto-Ñyqy or during the breakup of the language. Depending on +the languages that evolved from Proto-Ñyqy, some got rid of it later +while some other reinstated it as a full vowel with different rules +each on which vowel it would become. Thus in the current stage of +reasearch on Proto-Ñyqy, we cannot know for certain which vowel it +should have been. + +It is however possible to create a featural tree for the known vowels, +determining which would have been considered closer to others, as +seens with the vowel tree below. +#+NAME: vow-tree +#+header: :var vowels=vowels-featural-list +#+BEGIN_SRC emacs-lisp :wrap "src dot :file proto-nyqy/vowel-feature-tree.png :exports none" +(conlanging-list-to-graphviz vowels) +#+END_SRC + +#+RESULTS[eaefac0c72a08ab3e9f428c0d312996e99dc0502]: vow-tree +#+begin_src dot :file proto-nyqy/vowel-feature-tree.png :exports none +graph{graph[dpi=300,bgcolor="transparent"];node[shape=plaintext];"vowels-0jqz10ex3ux6"[label="vowels"];"+back-0jqz10ex3uxr"[label="+back"];"vowels-0jqz10ex3ux6"--"+back-0jqz10ex3uxr";"+tense-0jqz10ex3uy2"[label="+tense"];"+back-0jqz10ex3uxr"--"+tense-0jqz10ex3uy2";"+high-0jqz10ex3uyb"[label="+high"];"+tense-0jqz10ex3uy2"--"+high-0jqz10ex3uyb";"/u/-0jqz10ex3uyk"[label="/u/"];"+high-0jqz10ex3uyb"--"/u/-0jqz10ex3uyk";"-high-0jqz10ex3uz6"[label="-high"];"+tense-0jqz10ex3uy2"--"-high-0jqz10ex3uz6";"/ɤ/-0jqz10ex3uzg"[label="/ɤ/"];"-high-0jqz10ex3uz6"--"/ɤ/-0jqz10ex3uzg";"-tense-0jqz10ex3v0u"[label="-tense"];"+back-0jqz10ex3uxr"--"-tense-0jqz10ex3v0u";"+high-0jqz10ex3v14"[label="+high"];"-tense-0jqz10ex3v0u"--"+high-0jqz10ex3v14";"/ʊ/-0jqz10ex3v1d"[label="/ʊ/"];"+high-0jqz10ex3v14"--"/ʊ/-0jqz10ex3v1d";"-high-0jqz10ex3v20"[label="-high"];"-tense-0jqz10ex3v0u"--"-high-0jqz10ex3v20";"/ɔ/-0jqz10ex3v29"[label="/ɔ/"];"-high-0jqz10ex3v20"--"/ɔ/-0jqz10ex3v29";"-back-0jqz10ex3v4z"[label="-back"];"vowels-0jqz10ex3ux6"--"-back-0jqz10ex3v4z";"+tense-0jqz10ex3v59"[label="+tense"];"-back-0jqz10ex3v4z"--"+tense-0jqz10ex3v59";"+high-0jqz10ex3v5i"[label="+high"];"+tense-0jqz10ex3v59"--"+high-0jqz10ex3v5i";"/y/-0jqz10ex3v5r"[label="/y/"];"+high-0jqz10ex3v5i"--"/y/-0jqz10ex3v5r";"-high-0jqz10ex3v6c"[label="-high"];"+tense-0jqz10ex3v59"--"-high-0jqz10ex3v6c";"/ø/-0jqz10ex3v6m"[label="/ø/"];"-high-0jqz10ex3v6c"--"/ø/-0jqz10ex3v6m";"-tense-0jqz10ex3v7w"[label="-tense"];"-back-0jqz10ex3v4z"--"-tense-0jqz10ex3v7w";"+high-0jqz10ex3v86"[label="+high"];"-tense-0jqz10ex3v7w"--"+high-0jqz10ex3v86";"/ɪ/-0jqz10ex3v8f"[label="/ɪ/"];"+high-0jqz10ex3v86"--"/ɪ/-0jqz10ex3v8f";"-high-0jqz10ex3v91"[label="-high"];"-tense-0jqz10ex3v7w"--"-high-0jqz10ex3v91";"/ɛ/-0jqz10ex3v9a"[label="/ɛ/"];"-high-0jqz10ex3v91"--"/ɛ/-0jqz10ex3v9a";} +#+end_src + +#+html: Proto-Ñyqy Vowels Featural Tree + +**** Private Data :noexport: +#+name: vowels-featural-list +- vowels + - +back + - +tense + - +high + - /u/ + - -high + - /ɤ/ + - -tense + - +high + - /ʊ/ + - -high + - /ɔ/ + - -back + - +tense + - +high + - /y/ + - -high + - /ø/ + - -tense + - +high + - /ɪ/ + - -high + - /ɛ/ + +*** Consonants +The topic of consonants, unlike vowels, is a hot debate among +linguists. while we are pretty sure proto-ñyqy has twelve consonants, +we are still unsure which consonants they are due to the extreme +unstability of the dorsal feature, and there is seemingly no +consistency as to how the consonants stabilized in the different +languages that emerged from the proto-ñyqy breakup. it is only in the +recent years Ishy Maeln proposed a new theory that is gaining traction +among proto-ñyqy specialists: each consonant could be pronounced +either as a dorsal or as a non-dorsal depending on its environment and +both potential pronunciation can be correct. she even goes further and +proposes proto-ñyqy had an alternating rule stating a given consonant +had to be non-dorsal if the previous one was, and vice versa. this +would explain the common pattern of dorsal consonants alternation +found in some early languages found after the breakup such as +proto-mojhal. this phenomenon is more thouroughly explained in +[[file:phonology.md#consonants][Consonants]]. + +You can find the featural tree of the Proto-Ñyqy consonants in the +consonant tree below. Each grapheme displays below its dorsal +pronunciation on the left and its non-dorsal pronunciation on the +right. + +#+name: cons-tree +#+header: :var consonants=consonants-featural-list +#+begin_src emacs-lisp :wrap "src dot :file proto-nyqy/consonant-feature-tree.png :exports none" +(conlanging-list-to-graphviz consonants) +#+end_src + +#+RESULTS[084ff9041851d57a11859fbe86f3939212c0caf5]: cons-tree +#+begin_src dot :file proto-nyqy/consonant-feature-tree.png :exports none +graph{graph[dpi=300,bgcolor="transparent"];node[shape=plaintext];"consonants-0jqz10keat1f"[label="consonants"];"+coronal-0jqz10keat1m"[label="+coronal"];"consonants-0jqz10keat1f"--"+coronal-0jqz10keat1m";"+anterior-0jqz10keat1p"[label="+anterior"];"+coronal-0jqz10keat1m"--"+anterior-0jqz10keat1p";"+voice-0jqz10keat1r"[label="+voice"];"+anterior-0jqz10keat1p"--"+voice-0jqz10keat1r";"+nasal-0jqz10keat1t"[label="+nasal"];"+voice-0jqz10keat1r"--"+nasal-0jqz10keat1t";"n\nɳ / n-0jqz10keat1v"[label="n\nɳ / n"];"+nasal-0jqz10keat1t"--"n\nɳ / n-0jqz10keat1v";"-nasal-0jqz10keat21"[label="-nasal"];"+voice-0jqz10keat1r"--"-nasal-0jqz10keat21";"z\nʝ / z-0jqz10keat22"[label="z\nʝ / z"];"-nasal-0jqz10keat21"--"z\nʝ / z-0jqz10keat22";"-voice-0jqz10keat2d"[label="-voice"];"+anterior-0jqz10keat1p"--"-voice-0jqz10keat2d";"s\nç / s-0jqz10keat2e"[label="s\nç / s"];"-voice-0jqz10keat2d"--"s\nç / s-0jqz10keat2e";"-anterior-0jqz10keat2t"[label="-anterior"];"+coronal-0jqz10keat1m"--"-anterior-0jqz10keat2t";"+voice-0jqz10keat2v"[label="+voice"];"-anterior-0jqz10keat2t"--"+voice-0jqz10keat2v";"j\nɟ / d͡ʒ-0jqz10keat2y"[label="j\nɟ / d͡ʒ"];"+voice-0jqz10keat2v"--"j\nɟ / d͡ʒ-0jqz10keat2y";"- voice-0jqz10keat34"[label="- voice"];"-anterior-0jqz10keat2t"--"- voice-0jqz10keat34";"c\nc / t͡ʃ-0jqz10keat36"[label="c\nc / t͡ʃ"];"- voice-0jqz10keat34"--"c\nc / t͡ʃ-0jqz10keat36";"-coronal-0jqz10keat5e"[label="-coronal"];"consonants-0jqz10keat1f"--"-coronal-0jqz10keat5e";"+voice-0jqz10keat5g"[label="+voice"];"-coronal-0jqz10keat5e"--"+voice-0jqz10keat5g";"+nasal-0jqz10keat5i"[label="+nasal"];"+voice-0jqz10keat5g"--"+nasal-0jqz10keat5i";"+labial-0jqz10keat5k"[label="+labial"];"+nasal-0jqz10keat5i"--"+labial-0jqz10keat5k";"m\nŋ͡m / m-0jqz10keat5m"[label="m\nŋ͡m / m"];"+labial-0jqz10keat5k"--"m\nŋ͡m / m-0jqz10keat5m";"-labial-0jqz10keat5r"[label="-labial"];"+nasal-0jqz10keat5i"--"-labial-0jqz10keat5r";"ñ\nɴ / ɦ̃-0jqz10keat5t"[label="ñ\nɴ / ɦ̃"];"-labial-0jqz10keat5r"--"ñ\nɴ / ɦ̃-0jqz10keat5t";"-nasal-0jqz10keat63"[label="-nasal"];"+voice-0jqz10keat5g"--"-nasal-0jqz10keat63";"+labial-0jqz10keat65"[label="+labial"];"-nasal-0jqz10keat63"--"+labial-0jqz10keat65";"+constricted-0jqz10keat67"[label="+constricted"];"+labial-0jqz10keat65"--"+constricted-0jqz10keat67";"w\nw / v-0jqz10keat6d"[label="w\nw / v"];"+constricted-0jqz10keat67"--"w\nw / v-0jqz10keat6d";"-constricted-0jqz10keat6h"[label="-constricted"];"+labial-0jqz10keat65"--"-constricted-0jqz10keat6h";"b\ng͡b / b-0jqz10keat6k"[label="b\ng͡b / b"];"-constricted-0jqz10keat6h"--"b\ng͡b / b-0jqz10keat6k";"-labial-0jqz10keat6u"[label="-labial"];"-nasal-0jqz10keat63"--"-labial-0jqz10keat6u";"g\nɡ / ʕ-0jqz10keat6w"[label="g\nɡ / ʕ"];"-labial-0jqz10keat6u"--"g\nɡ / ʕ-0jqz10keat6w";"-voice-0jqz10keat7t"[label="-voice"];"-coronal-0jqz10keat5e"--"-voice-0jqz10keat7t";"+labial-0jqz10keat7v"[label="+labial"];"-voice-0jqz10keat7t"--"+labial-0jqz10keat7v";"p\nk͡p / p-0jqz10keat7w"[label="p\nk͡p / p"];"+labial-0jqz10keat7v"--"p\nk͡p / p-0jqz10keat7w";"-labial-0jqz10keat81"[label="-labial"];"-voice-0jqz10keat7t"--"-labial-0jqz10keat81";"q\nq / ħ-0jqz10keat83"[label="q\nq / ħ"];"-labial-0jqz10keat81"--"q\nq / ħ-0jqz10keat83";} +#+end_src + +#+html: Feature Tree of Proto-Ñyqy Consonants + +As you can see, each one of the consonants have their two alternative +indicated below their grapheme. In the case of the coronal consonants, +the alternative consonant is obtained by replacing the anterior +feature by the dorsal feature when it is present. + +The way of writing consonants was therefore standardized as presented +in the table below. +#+name: table:consonants-pronunciation +#+caption: Possible Pronunciations of the Proto-Ñyqy Consonants +| Main Grapheme | Dorsal Phoneme | Non-Dorsal Phoneme | Alternate Grapheme | +|---------------+----------------+--------------------+--------------------| +| ñ | {{{phon(*ɴ)}}} | {{{phon(*ɦ̃)}}} | ḿ | +| q | {{{phon(*q)}}} | {{{phon(*ħ)}}} | ħ, h_{1} | +| g | {{{phon(*ɢ)}}} | {{{phon(*ʕ)}}} | ȟ, h_{2} | +| c | {{{phon(*c)}}} | {{{phon(*t͡ʃ)}}} | ł | +| j | {{{phon(*ɟ)}}} | {{{phon(*d͡ʒ)}}} | ʒ | +| w | {{{phon(*w)}}} | {{{phon(*v)}}} | l | +| m | {{{phon(*ŋ͡m)}}} | {{{phon(*m)}}} | r, r_{1} | +| p | {{{phon(*χ)}}} | {{{phon(*p)}}} | xh, r_{2} | +| b | {{{phon(*g͡b)}}} | {{{phon(*b)}}} | rh, r_{3} | +| n | {{{phon(*ɳ)}}} | {{{phon(*n)}}} | y | +| s | {{{phon(*ç)}}} | {{{phon(*s)}}} | x, r_{4} | +| z | {{{phon(*ʝ)}}} | {{{phon(*z)}}} | ɣ, r_{5} | +For each of these consonants, the letter chosen represents what we +suppose was the most common or the default pronunciation of the +consonant represented. In the table are also included alternate +graphemes you might find in other, mostly older works, though they are +mostly deprecated now. + +As you can see, Proto-Ñyqy had potentially two different consonants +that could be pronounced as {{{phon(*m)}}}. Although it did not influence +Proto-Ñyqy as far as we know, it definitively influenced the Pritian +branch of the family, with «ñ» and «m» influencing differently the +vowel following it. + +Several consonants used to be unknown at the beginnings of the +Proto-Ñyqy study, as can be seen with the old usage of «h_{1}, h_{2}, r_{1}, +r_{2}, r_{3}, r_{4}, and r_{5}». These are found mostly in the earlier documents +but progressively dissapear as our understanding of the Proto-Ñyqy +grew during the past century. They are not used anymore, but any +student that wishes to read older documents on Proto-Ñyqy should be +aware of these. + +**** Private Data :noexport: +#+name: consonants-featural-list +- consonants + - +coronal + - +anterior + - +voice + - +nasal + - n\nɳ / n + - -nasal + - z\nʝ / z + - -voice + - s\nç / s + - -anterior + - +voice + - j\nɟ / d͡ʒ + - - voice + - c\nc / t͡ʃ + - -coronal + - +voice + - +nasal + - +labial + - m\nŋ͡m / m + - -labial + - ñ\nɴ / ɦ̃ + - -nasal + - +labial + - +constricted + - w\nw / v + - -constricted + - b\ng͡b / b + - -labial + - g\nɡ / ʕ + - -voice + - +labial + - p\nk͡p / p + - -labial + - q\nq / ħ + +*** Pitch and Stress +It is definitively known Proto-Ñyqy had a stress system that was used +both on a clause and on a word level, as the languages that evolved +from it inherited this characteristic. However, it is not possible to +reconstruct it accurately, we only know the vowel «ə» was unstressed +and only appeared in words with two syllables or more. However, we do +not know if it had any morphological meaning or if it was productive. + +On the other hand, we are much less sure about whether it had a pitch +system, and if it did whether it was productive or not. Most of the +languages that evolved from Proto-Ñyqy had or have one such as the +Mojhal-Andelian family, but some don’t such as the Pritian family. The +most commonly accepted answer is a pitch system appeared after the +breakup of the pitchless branches which happenned earlier than the +other branches which do have a pitch system. In reconstructed +Proto-Ñyqy however, if such a system was present, pitches were most +likely non-phonemic and unproductive. It only gained productivity in +later stages, after the first breakups we know, in a common unknown +ancestor language of the branches which did or still do have either an +accent or a pitch system, and even there the evolutions seem to have +happened in different ways depending on the branches. It is therefore +impossible to know what the pitch system of Proto-Ñyqy was if it had +one. + +** Phonotactics +*** Syllable Structure +The prototypical syllable in Proto-Ñyqy appears as a (C)V(C)(C) +syllable with at least one consonant around the vowel, either in the +onset or in the coda. At most, it can have one consonant in the onset +and two in the coda. + +No special rule have been found to rule the onset, it can host any +consonant without any effect on the vowel. + +However, it has been found the coda has some rules: +- two nasal consonants cannot follow each other --- no {{{recon(-ñm)}}} +- two coronal consonants cannot follow each other --- no {{{recon(-ns)}}} +- labial consonants are never found with another consonant in the coda + --- no {{{recon(-ps)}}} +For instance, {{{recon(noc zebec)}}} would be pronounced as {{{recon(noc +gebec)}}}. It is most likely the features to chose from when converting a +consonant from a coronal to a non-coronal were considered as absent by +default. This results in the table below --- as you can see, the pair +«z» and «j» and the pair «s» and «c» convert to the same consonant +respectively. +#+name: table:coronal-to-non-coronal-consonants +#+caption: Conversion Table of Coronal to Non-Coronal Consonants +| Coronal Consonant | Non-Coronal Consonant | +|-------------------+-----------------------| +| n | ñ | +| z | g | +| s | q | +| j | g | +| c | q | + +It has also been found that if two coronal consonants do follow each +other in cross-syllabic environments, with the first one in the coda +of a first syllable and the second one in the onset of a second +syllable, then the former will become voiced as the latter. + +Similarly, if two nasal consonants are found near each other in a +cross-syllabic environment, the second nasal consonant will become +denasalized. Thus, we get the conversion table below. +#+name: table:consonants-denasalization +#+caption: Denasalization Table for Proto-Ñyqy Consonants +| Nasal Consonant | Non-Nasal Consonant | +|-----------------+---------------------| +| n | z | +| m | w | +| ñ | b | + +It has also been found a schwa tends to appear between syllables when +the first one ends with two consonants and the second one begins with +one. + +*** Consonantal Dorsal Alternation +As mentioned above in [[file:phonology.md#consonants][Consonants]], it seems probable according to +Maeln’s theory consonants were alternating between dorsals and +non-dorsals. We do not know if it only happened between words, within +words, or along whole clauses, but this would explain much of the +different languages that evolved from Proto-Ñyqy. The table below +shows different possible pronunciation of Proto-Ñyqy words with +word-wise consonantal dorsal alternation whether the first consonant +is to be considered a dorsal consonant or not. Note the nasal switch +as well as the extra schwa insertion in the third example as described +above in [[file:phonology.md#syllable-structure][Syllable Structure]]. + +#+name: table:word-consonantal-dorsal-alternation +#+caption: Different Possible Pronunciation of Proto-Ñyqy Words +| Word | Dorsal-Initial | Dorsal-Final | +|-----------------+-----------------------+---------------------| +| {{{recon(pœwec)}}} | {{{phon(*pɤwɛt͡ʃ)}}} | {{{phon(*pɤvɛc)}}} | +| {{{recon(zebec)}}} | {{{phon(*zɛg͡bɛt͡ʃ)}}} | {{{phon(*ʝɛbɛc)}}} | +| {{{recon(ñocm noc)}}} | {{{phon(*ɴɔt͡ʃŋ͡m ə ɦɔc)}}} | {{{phon(*ɦɔcm ə ɴot͡ʃ)}}} | diff --git a/docs/proto-nyqy/syntax.org b/docs/proto-nyqy/syntax.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f9b0330 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/proto-nyqy/syntax.org @@ -0,0 +1,311 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers +* Syntax +** World Classes +*** Nouns +# - What are the distributional properties of nouns? +# - What are the structural properties of nouns? +# - What are the major formally distinct subcategories of nouns? +# - What is the basic structure of the noun word (for polysynthetic +# languages) and/or noun phrases (for more isolating languages)? +Nouns in Proto-Ñyqy generally refer to defined entities, such as +objects, people, concepts, or events. Regardless of their role during +locution, a noun bears no morphological information such as its +syntactic role or its number. However, nouns can associate with each +other and act as adjectives. +# More on that in +# §[[#Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Descriptive-Adjectives-pcpelau058j0]]. +Noun phrases in Proto-Ñyqy are head-first, meaning the noun in noun +phrases come relatively early although the former is built around the +former and not exclusively after it. Noun phrases are mainly found as +agents or patients of a sentence, but they can also be found in +genitive and dative constructions. + +The nouns could most likely take genitive pronouns, but how they +interacted exactly is yet unsure. The + +**** Countables and Uncountables :noexport: + +**** Proper Nouns :noexport: + +*** Pronouns and Anaphoric Clitics +# - Does the language have free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics? +# (These are distinct from grammatical agreement.) +# - Give a chart of the free pronouns and/or anaphoric clitics. +**** Personal Pronouns +It seems only three pronouns existed in Proto-Ñyqy, one for each of +the persons you would find in a typical language, as shown below. + +#+name: table:pronouns +#+caption: Proto-Ñyqy pronouns +| Person | Pronoun | +|--------+-----------| +| 1 | {{{recon(qy)}}} | +| 2 | {{{recon(bú)}}} | +| 3 | {{{recon(zø)}}} | + +It appears Proto-Ñyqy pronouns did not have any morphological rule to +make them agree in number and due to the apparent lack of gender +neither did they agree with it. However, it is possible that at some +stage of the development of the language, Proto-Ñyqy began affixing +cardinal numbers in order to its pronouns up until the number “six” +{{{recon(ñy)}}} which would have marked a general plural. It is very much +possible all numbers up to {{{recon(ñy)}}} were used with pronouns, however +only remains of it as well as {{{recon(qi)}}} (/two/) for some dual or paucal, +and in the case of the Tiltinian family {{{recon(nø)}}} (/three/) was used for +trial and later on for paucal. No remains of {{{recon(gø)}}}, {{{recon(co)}}} or +any number higher than {{{recon(ñy)}}} is found in its daughter languages. +It is also unlikely {{{recon(mi)}}} (/one/) was ever used to mark the +singular, or at least its usage never persisted in its recorded +daughter languages as it cannot be reconstructed with our current +knowledge. +# The order in which these cardinal numbers are affixed to +# the pronoun depend on the numbers’ word order described in +# [[#Structural-Preview-World-Classes-Modifiers-Numerals-4gvelau058j0]]. + +- {{{recon(møgusqim qy ij)}}} + + village towards 1sg go + + I’m going to the village +- {{{recon(møgusqim qyqi ij)}}} + + village towards 1 two/du go + + We both are going to the village +- {{{recon(møgusqim qynø ij)}}} + + village towards 1 3/tri/pauc go + + We three are going to the village +- {{{recon(møgusqim ñyqy ij)}}} + + village towards six/pl 1 go + + We are going to the village + +It doesn’t appear either that there was any morphology associated to +their grammatical case. All of its daughter languages have at least a +distinction between nominative, accusative, and genitive pronouns, but +it appears they all evolved after the Proto-Ñyqy breakup, with no +relation between the main daughter language families. The best example +is the striking difference between the Andelian and the Mojhal +families despite the fact they both come from Proto-Mojhal-Andelian +which is the earliest known language to split off from Proto-Ñyqy, as +well as Proto-Tiltinian and Old Pritian which again have no +similarities regarding their pronoun declensions. The only common +roots found are these three pronouns described in [[./syntax.md#personal-pronouns][Personal Pronouns]]. + +Personal pronouns are free pronouns which do not need to be bound to +other elements in a sentence. +1. {{{recon(qibú qy qe)}}} + + du 2 1sg see + + I see them both +2. {{{recon(qyim ñocm qe)}}} + + 1sg DAT someone see + + Does anyone see me? + + {{{recon(ee qy)}}} + + yes 1sg + + Yes, me. + +**** Demonstrative Pronouns +Four levels of demonstratives seems to have existed in Proto-Ñyqy: +- {{{recon(bœce)}}} :: near the speaker +- {{{recon(pue)}}} :: near the interlocutor +- {{{recon(yqe)}}} and {{{recon(jœe)}}} :: distant from the speakers + +It is interesting to see here a common pattern among languages which +is demonstratives pronouns coming from words meaning “here” or +“there”. In that case, these pronouns are derived from {{{recon(bœc)}}}, +{{{recon(pu)}}}, {{{recon(yq)}}}, and {{{recon(jœ)}}}. + +We are not sure about the difference between {{{recon(yq)}}} and {{{recon(jœ)}}}. +It is theorized they had differences in distance between the element +described by the pronoun and the speakers, maybe one describing +something that could be seen and the other not. In any case, only one +of the two survived in each language family so we cannot compare their +use in documented languages. + +**** Possessive Pronouns :noexport: +*** Verbs :noexport: +# - What are the distributional properties of verbs? +# - What are the structural properties of verbs? +# - What are the major subclasses of verbs? +# - Describe the order of various verbal operators within the verbal +# - word or verb phrase. +# - Give charts of the various paradigms, e.g. person marking, +# - tense/aspect/mode, etc. Indicate major allomorphic variants. +# - Are directional and/or locational notions expressed in the verb or +# - verb phrase at all? +# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the +# paradigm have to occur in every finite verb or verb phrase? +# - Is it productive, i.e. can the operation be specified for al +# verb stems, and does it have the same meaning with each one? +# (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more +# productive than others.) +# - Is this operation primarily coded morphologically, analytically, +# or lexically? Are there any exceptions to the general case? +# - Where in the verb phrase or verbal word is this operation likely +# to appear? Can it occur in more than one place? +**** Verbal Structure +**** Verbal Derivations +**** Verbal Inflexions +*** Modifiers :noexport: +# - If you posit a morphosyntactic category of adjectives, give +# evidence for not grouping theseforms with the verbs or nouns. What +# characterizes a form as being an adjective in this language? +# - How can you characterize semantically the class of concepts coded +# by this formal category? +# - Do adjectives agree with their heads (e.g. in number, case, and/or +# noun class)? +# - What kind of system does the language employ for counting? +# - How high can a fluent native speaker count without resorting +# either to words from another language or to a generic word like +# /many/? Exemplify the system up to this point. +# - Do numerals agree with their head nouns (number, case, noun +# class, ...)? +**** Descriptive Adjectives +**** Non-Numeral Quantifiers +**** Numerals +*** Adverbs :noexport: +# - What characterikes a form as being an adverb in this language? If +# you posit a distinct class of adverbs, argue for why these forms +# should not be treated as nouns, verbs, or adjectives. +# - For each kind of adverb listed in this section, list a few members +# of the type, and specify whether there are any restrictions +# relavite to that type, e.g. where they can come in a clause, any +# morphemes common to the type, etc. +# - Are any of these classes of adverbs related to older +# complement-taking (matrix) verbs? +*** Adpositions :noexport: +*** Grammatical Particules :noexport: +** Constituants Order Typology :noexport: +*** Constituants Order in Main Clauses +# - What is the neutral order of free elements in the unit? +# - Are there variations? +# - How do the variant orders function? +# - Specific to the main clause constituent order: What is the +# pragmatically neutral order of constituents (A/S, P, and V) in +# basic clauses of the language? +*** Constituants Order in Nominal Clauses +# - Describe the order(s) of elements in the noun phrase. +*** Constituants Order in Verbal Clauses +# - Where do auxliaries occur in relation to the semantically “main” +# verb? +# - Where do verb-phrase adverbs occur with respect to the verb and +# auxiliaries? +*** Adpositional Phrases +# - Is the language dominantly prepositional or post-positional? Give +# examples. +# - Do many adpositions come from nouns or verbs? +*** Comparatives +# - Does the language have one or more grammaticalized comparative +# constructions? If so, what is the order of the standard, the +# marker and the quality by which an item is compared to the +# standard? +*** Questions +# - In yes/no questions, if there is a question particle, where does +# it occur? +# - In information questions, where does the question word occur? +** Structure of a Nominal Group :noexport: +*** Composed Words +# - Is there noun-noun compounding that results in a noun (e.g. +# /windshield/)? +# - How do you know it is compounding? +# - Is there noun-verb (or verb-noun) compounding that results in a +# noun (e.g. /pickpocket/, /scarecrow/)? +# - Are these processes productive (like noun-verb in English +# can-opener)? How common is compounding? +*** Denominalization +# - Are there any processes (productive or not) that form a verb from +# a noun? +# - An adjective from a noun? +# - An adverb from a noun? +*** Numbers +# - Is number expressed in the noun phrase? +# - Is the distinction between singular and non-singular obligatory, +# optional, or completely absent in the noun phrase? +# - If number marking is “optional”, when does it tend to occur, and +# when does it tend not to occur? +# - If number marking is obligatory, is number overtly expressed for +# all noun phrases or only some subclasses of noun phrases, such as +# animate? +# - What non-singular distinctions are there? +*** Grammatical Case +# - Do nouns exhibit morphological case? +# - If so, what are the cases? (The functions of the cases will be +# elaborated in later sections) +*** Articles and Demonstratives +# - Do noun phrases have articles? +# - If so, are they obligatory or optional, and under what +# circumstances do they occur? +# - Are they separate words, or bound morphemes? +# - Is there a class of classes of demonstratives as distinct from +# articles? +# - How many degrees of distance are there in the system of +# demontsratives? +# - Are there other distinctions beside distances? +*** Possessives +# - How are possessors expressed in the noun phrase? +# - Do nouns agree with their possessors? Do possessors agree with +# possessed nouns? Neither, or both? +# - Is there a distinction between alienable and inalienable +# possesson? +# - Are there other types of possession? +# - When the possessor is a full noun, where does it usually come with +# respect to the possessed noun? +*** Classes (including Gender) +# - Is there a noun class system? +# - What are the classes and how are they manifested in the noun +# phrase? +# - What dimension of reality is most central to the noun class system +# (e.g. animacy, shape, function, etc.)? What other dimensions are +# relevant? +# - Do the classifiers occur with numerals? Adjectives? Verbs? +# - What is their function in these contexts? +*** Diminution/Augmentation +# - Does the language employ diminutive and/or augmentative operators +# in the noun or noun phrase? +# - Questions to answer for all nominal operations: +# - Is this operation obligatory, i.e. does one member of the +# paradigm have to occur in every full noun phrase? +# - Is it productive, i.e. can the operation be specified for all +# full noun phrases and does it have the same meaning with each +# one? (Nothing is fully productive, but some operations are more +# so than others.) +# - Is this operation primarily expressed lexically, +# morphologically, or analytically? +# - Where in the noun phrase is this operation likely to be located? +# - Can it occur in more than one place? +** Predicates and Linked Constructions :noexport: +*** Nominal Predicates +# - How are proper inclusion and equative predicates formed? +# - What restrictions are there, if any, on the TAM marking of such +# clauses? +*** Adjective Predicates +# - How are predicate adjective formed? (Include a separate section on +# predicate adjectives only if they are structurally distinct from +# predicate nominals.) +*** Locative Predicates +# - How are locational clauses (or predicate locatives) formed? +*** Existential Predicates +# - How are existential clauses formed? (Give examples in different +# tense/aspects, especially if there is significant variation.) +# - How are negative existentials formed? +# - Are there extended uses of existential morphology? (Provide +# pointers to other relevant sections of the grammar.) +*** Possessive Clauses +# - How are possessive clauses formed? +** Verbal Groups Structure :noexport: +** Intransitive Clauses :noexport: +** Ditransitive Clauses :noexport: +** Dependent Type Clauses :noexport: +*** Non-Finite +*** Semi-Finite +*** Finite diff --git a/docs/proto-nyqy/typology.org b/docs/proto-nyqy/typology.org new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2650f96 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/proto-nyqy/typology.org @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +#+setupfile: ../headers +* Typological Outline of Proto-Ñyqy +# - Is the language dominantly isolating or polysynthetic? +# - If the language is at all polysynthetic, is it dominantly +# agglutinative or fusional? Give examples of its dominant pattern +# and any secondary patterns. +# - If the language is at all agglutinative, is it dominantly +# prefixing, suffixing or neither? +# - Illustrate the major and secondary patterns (including infixation, +# stem modification, reduplication, suprasegmental modification, and +# suppletion). +# - If the language is at all polysynthetic, is it dominantly +# "head-marking", "dependent-marking", or mixed? +# - Give some examples of each type of marking the language exhibits. +Proto-Ñyqy is a language that appears to be strongly analytical and +isolating. It relies mainly on its syntax when it comes to its grammar +and seldom on morphological rules if at all. It wouldn’t really make +much sense to say whether the language is postpositional or +prepositional since the only rule defined in Hawkin’s Universals +Proto-Ñyqy respects is relative clauses and possessives before the +noun, though it tends to make Proto-Ñyqy slightly more postpositional +than neutral. Most of its words contain either one or two syllables +and its sentenses often revolve around linked morphemes which could be +interpreted as grammatical particules. You can find some examples of +Proto-Ñyqy and its translation below as well as its glossing. +1. {{{recon(yq ñe pom qy)}}} + + dem.prox3 home gen 1sg.abs + + This house is mine +2. {{{recon(cø ne)}}} + + 1sg.poss.incl house.abs + + This is my house +3. {{{recon(pim bú qi coq op)}}} + + mango 2sg.erg du eat pst + + We (two) ate a mango +4. {{{recon(cø pim i bœ mygú coq ug mún op zø qy zúmu op)}}} + + POSS.1sg mango undef.art(ABS) def.art monkey(ERG) eat SUBJ PROG PST + 3sg(ABS) 1sg(ERG) see PST + + I saw the monkey that would have been eating a mango of mine + +In the first and second examples, we can notice the absence of a verb +“to be” or any equivalent, this shows existential predicates did not +need a verb in order to express the existance of something and its +attributes. This also reveals the word order of the genitive form in +Proto-Ñyqy, the genitive particle follows the element it propertizes +and is followed by its property. For instance, in {{{recon(yq ñe pom qy)}}}, +{{{recon(yq ñe)}}} “this house” has the property of being mine {{{recon(qy)}}} is +the first person singular). /I/ characterize /this house/, therefore /this +house is of me/, /this is my house/. The main difference between the +first and the second examples is the first example is the accent in +the first example is on the fact that said house is /mine/, whereas in +the second example “my house” is simply presented to the interlocutor. + +As you can see in the third example, Proto-Ñyqy used to have a dual +number which has been lost in most of its decendent languages, and the +remaining languages employ the former dual as their current plural +dissmissing instead the old plural. Only does the Énanon keep it with +its plural, using the former dual as a paucal. As indicated by its +name, the dual was used when referencing to two elements when an +otherwise greater amount of elements would have required the plural. +Hence, in this example, you could consider {{{recon(bú qi)}}} to be kind of +a 2DU pronoun. +# --- it is actually a bit more complex than that, as we’ll see in +# chapter +# [[#Structural-Preview-Structure-of-a-Nominal-Group-Numbers-n0a6umu058j0]]. + +Finally, the fourth example gives us an overview of Proto-Ñyqy syntax, +such as a different position depending on whether we use an indefinite +or definite article, as well as a subclause inserted in the main +clause defining a noun phrase, here {{{recon(zø)}}} refering to {{{recon(mygú)}}}. +We can also clearly see the word order of main clauses presented as +Patient-Agent-Verb. Although most of its are nominative languages, +Aarlerte (3652) postulates in her recent papers Proto-Ñyqy might have +been primarily ergative. The loss of this trait in its closest +descendent languages such as Proto-Mojhal-Andelian and Proto-Tiltinian +might indicate this feature was already unstable in Proto-Ñyqy. +Ergativity might have been in use only in main clauses, and Aarlerte +argues this might have been the last trace of ergativity in an +otherwise nominative language. + +Note that although linguists suppose Proto-Ñyqy was a mostly +analytical language, some people like to write related morphemes +together as one word, hyphenated or not. Thus, the third example could +also be written as {{{recon(pim búqi coqop)}}} or {{{recon(pim bú-qi coq-op)}}} by +some. It is due to the fact Proto-Ñyqy was for a long time thought to +be an agglutinative language like Proto-Mojhal-Andelian and the habit +of writing related morphemes as one word stuck around. However, +nowadays we know an analytical Proto-Ñyqy is instead most likely and +scolars began writing morphenes separated from each other instead. diff --git a/fdl-1.3.md b/fdl-1.3.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6ad58d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/fdl-1.3.md @@ -0,0 +1,445 @@ +### GNU Free Documentation License + +Version 1.3, 3 November 2008 + +Copyright (C) 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, +Inc. + +Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this +license document, but changing it is not allowed. + +#### 0. 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Copying with +changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of +the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim +copying in other respects. + +If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit +legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit +reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent +pages. + +If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering +more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent +copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy +a computer-network location from which the general network-using +public has access to download using public-standard network protocols +a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. +If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, +when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure +that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated +location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an +Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that +edition to the public. + +It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the +Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to +give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the +Document. + +#### 4. MODIFICATIONS + +You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under +the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release +the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified +Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution +and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy +of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version: + +- A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title + distinct from that of the Document, and from those of previous + versions (which should, if there were any, be listed in the + History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a + previous version if the original publisher of that version + gives permission. +- B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or + entities responsible for authorship of the modifications in the + Modified Version, together with at least five of the principal + authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has + fewer than five), unless they release you from this requirement. +- C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the + Modified Version, as the publisher. +- D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document. +- E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications + adjacent to the other copyright notices. +- F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license + notice giving the public permission to use the Modified Version + under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the + Addendum below. +- G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant + Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Document's + license notice. +- H. Include an unaltered copy of this License. +- I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, + and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new + authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given on the + Title Page. If there is no section Entitled "History" in the + Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and + publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an + item describing the Modified Version as stated in the + previous sentence. +- J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document + for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and + likewise the network locations given in the Document for previous + versions it was based on. These may be placed in the "History" + section. You may omit a network location for a work that was + published at least four years before the Document itself, or if + the original publisher of the version it refers to + gives permission. +- K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications", + Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all + the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements + and/or dedications given therein. +- L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered + in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the + equivalent are not considered part of the section titles. +- M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section may + not be included in the Modified Version. +- N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled + "Endorsements" or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section. +- O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers. + +If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or +appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material +copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all +of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the +list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice. +These titles must be distinct from any other section titles. + +You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains +nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various +parties—for example, statements of peer review or that the text has +been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a +standard. + +You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a +passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list +of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of +Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or +through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already +includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or +by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, +you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit +permission from the previous publisher that added the old one. + +The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License +give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or +imply endorsement of any Modified Version. + +#### 5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS + +You may combine the Document with other documents released under this +License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified +versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the +Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and +list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its +license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers. + +The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and +multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single +copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but +different contents, make the title of each such section unique by +adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original +author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. +Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of +Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work. + +In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History" +in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled +"History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements", +and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections +Entitled "Endorsements". + +#### 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS + +You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other +documents released under this License, and replace the individual +copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy +that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules +of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all +other respects. + +You may extract a single document from such a collection, and +distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a +copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this +License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that +document. + +#### 7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS + +A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate +and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or +distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright +resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights +of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit. +When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not +apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves +derivative works of the Document. + +If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these +copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of +the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on +covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the +electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. +Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole +aggregate. + +#### 8. TRANSLATION + +Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may +distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. +Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special +permission from their copyright holders, but you may include +translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the +original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a +translation of this License, and all the license notices in the +Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include +the original English version of this License and the original versions +of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between +the translation and the original version of this License or a notice +or disclaimer, the original version will prevail. + +If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", +"Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve +its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual +title. + +#### 9. TERMINATION + +You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document +except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise +to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and will +automatically terminate your rights under this License. + +However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license +from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, +unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally +terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder +fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to +60 days after the cessation. + +Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is +reinstated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the +violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have +received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that +copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after +your receipt of the notice. + +Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the +licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under +this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently +reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the same material does +not give you any rights to use it. + +#### 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE + +The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the +GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions +will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in +detail to address new problems or concerns. See +. + +Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. +If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this +License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of +following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or +of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the +Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version +number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not +as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document specifies +that a proxy can decide which future versions of this License can be +used, that proxy's public statement of acceptance of a version +permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Document. + +#### 11. RELICENSING + +"Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site" (or "MMC Site") means any +World Wide Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also +provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those works. A +public wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a server. A +"Massive Multiauthor Collaboration" (or "MMC") contained in the site +means any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site. + +"CC-BY-SA" means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 +license published by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit +corporation with a principal place of business in San Francisco, +California, as well as future copyleft versions of that license +published by that same organization. + +"Incorporate" means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or in +part, as part of another Document. + +An MMC is "eligible for relicensing" if it is licensed under this +License, and if all works that were first published under this License +somewhere other than this MMC, and subsequently incorporated in whole +or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or invariant sections, +and (2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008. + +The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the site +under CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August 1, 2009, +provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing. + +### ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents + +To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of +the License in the document and put the following copyright and +license notices just after the title page: + + Copyright (C) YEAR YOUR NAME. + Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document + under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 + or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; + with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. + A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU + Free Documentation License". + +If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover +Texts, replace the "with … Texts." line with this: + + with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the + Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST. + +If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other +combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the +situation. + +If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we +recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of +free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to +permit their use in free software. diff --git a/gpl-3.0.md b/gpl-3.0.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2fb2e74 --- /dev/null +++ b/gpl-3.0.md @@ -0,0 +1,675 @@ +### GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE + +Version 3, 29 June 2007 + +Copyright (C) 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. + + +Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this +license document, but changing it is not allowed. + +### Preamble + +The GNU General Public License is a free, copyleft license for +software and other kinds of works. + +The licenses for most software and other practical works are designed +to take away your freedom to share and change the works. By contrast, +the GNU General Public License is intended to guarantee your freedom +to share and change all versions of a program--to make sure it remains +free software for all its users. We, the Free Software Foundation, use +the GNU General Public License for most of our software; it applies +also to any other work released this way by its authors. You can apply +it to your programs, too. + +When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not +price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you +have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for +them if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you +want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new +free programs, and that you know you can do these things. + +To protect your rights, we need to prevent others from denying you +these rights or asking you to surrender the rights. Therefore, you +have certain responsibilities if you distribute copies of the +software, or if you modify it: responsibilities to respect the freedom +of others. + +For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether +gratis or for a fee, you must pass on to the recipients the same +freedoms that you received. You must make sure that they, too, receive +or can get the source code. And you must show them these terms so they +know their rights. + +Developers that use the GNU GPL protect your rights with two steps: +(1) assert copyright on the software, and (2) offer you this License +giving you legal permission to copy, distribute and/or modify it. + +For the developers' and authors' protection, the GPL clearly explains +that there is no warranty for this free software. For both users' and +authors' sake, the GPL requires that modified versions be marked as +changed, so that their problems will not be attributed erroneously to +authors of previous versions. + +Some devices are designed to deny users access to install or run +modified versions of the software inside them, although the +manufacturer can do so. This is fundamentally incompatible with the +aim of protecting users' freedom to change the software. The +systematic pattern of such abuse occurs in the area of products for +individuals to use, which is precisely where it is most unacceptable. +Therefore, we have designed this version of the GPL to prohibit the +practice for those products. If such problems arise substantially in +other domains, we stand ready to extend this provision to those +domains in future versions of the GPL, as needed to protect the +freedom of users. + +Finally, every program is threatened constantly by software patents. +States should not allow patents to restrict development and use of +software on general-purpose computers, but in those that do, we wish +to avoid the special danger that patents applied to a free program +could make it effectively proprietary. To prevent this, the GPL +assures that patents cannot be used to render the program non-free. + +The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and +modification follow. + +### TERMS AND CONDITIONS + +#### 0. Definitions. + +"This License" refers to version 3 of the GNU General Public License. + +"Copyright" also means copyright-like laws that apply to other kinds +of works, such as semiconductor masks. + +"The Program" refers to any copyrightable work licensed under this +License. Each licensee is addressed as "you". "Licensees" and +"recipients" may be individuals or organizations. + +To "modify" a work means to copy from or adapt all or part of the work +in a fashion requiring copyright permission, other than the making of +an exact copy. The resulting work is called a "modified version" of +the earlier work or a work "based on" the earlier work. + +A "covered work" means either the unmodified Program or a work based +on the Program. + +To "propagate" a work means to do anything with it that, without +permission, would make you directly or secondarily liable for +infringement under applicable copyright law, except executing it on a +computer or modifying a private copy. Propagation includes copying, +distribution (with or without modification), making available to the +public, and in some countries other activities as well. + +To "convey" a work means any kind of propagation that enables other +parties to make or receive copies. Mere interaction with a user +through a computer network, with no transfer of a copy, is not +conveying. + +An interactive user interface displays "Appropriate Legal Notices" to +the extent that it includes a convenient and prominently visible +feature that (1) displays an appropriate copyright notice, and (2) +tells the user that there is no warranty for the work (except to the +extent that warranties are provided), that licensees may convey the +work under this License, and how to view a copy of this License. If +the interface presents a list of user commands or options, such as a +menu, a prominent item in the list meets this criterion. + +#### 1. Source Code. + +The "source code" for a work means the preferred form of the work for +making modifications to it. "Object code" means any non-source form of +a work. + +A "Standard Interface" means an interface that either is an official +standard defined by a recognized standards body, or, in the case of +interfaces specified for a particular programming language, one that +is widely used among developers working in that language. + +The "System Libraries" of an executable work include anything, other +than the work as a whole, that (a) is included in the normal form of +packaging a Major Component, but which is not part of that Major +Component, and (b) serves only to enable use of the work with that +Major Component, or to implement a Standard Interface for which an +implementation is available to the public in source code form. A +"Major Component", in this context, means a major essential component +(kernel, window system, and so on) of the specific operating system +(if any) on which the executable work runs, or a compiler used to +produce the work, or an object code interpreter used to run it. + +The "Corresponding Source" for a work in object code form means all +the source code needed to generate, install, and (for an executable +work) run the object code and to modify the work, including scripts to +control those activities. However, it does not include the work's +System Libraries, or general-purpose tools or generally available free +programs which are used unmodified in performing those activities but +which are not part of the work. For example, Corresponding Source +includes interface definition files associated with source files for +the work, and the source code for shared libraries and dynamically +linked subprograms that the work is specifically designed to require, +such as by intimate data communication or control flow between those +subprograms and other parts of the work. + +The Corresponding Source need not include anything that users can +regenerate automatically from other parts of the Corresponding Source. + +The Corresponding Source for a work in source code form is that same +work. + +#### 2. Basic Permissions. + +All rights granted under this License are granted for the term of +copyright on the Program, and are irrevocable provided the stated +conditions are met. This License explicitly affirms your unlimited +permission to run the unmodified Program. The output from running a +covered work is covered by this License only if the output, given its +content, constitutes a covered work. This License acknowledges your +rights of fair use or other equivalent, as provided by copyright law. + +You may make, run and propagate covered works that you do not convey, +without conditions so long as your license otherwise remains in force. +You may convey covered works to others for the sole purpose of having +them make modifications exclusively for you, or provide you with +facilities for running those works, provided that you comply with the +terms of this License in conveying all material for which you do not +control copyright. Those thus making or running the covered works for +you must do so exclusively on your behalf, under your direction and +control, on terms that prohibit them from making any copies of your +copyrighted material outside their relationship with you. + +Conveying under any other circumstances is permitted solely under the +conditions stated below. Sublicensing is not allowed; section 10 makes +it unnecessary. + +#### 3. Protecting Users' Legal Rights From Anti-Circumvention Law. + +No covered work shall be deemed part of an effective technological +measure under any applicable law fulfilling obligations under article +11 of the WIPO copyright treaty adopted on 20 December 1996, or +similar laws prohibiting or restricting circumvention of such +measures. + +When you convey a covered work, you waive any legal power to forbid +circumvention of technological measures to the extent such +circumvention is effected by exercising rights under this License with +respect to the covered work, and you disclaim any intention to limit +operation or modification of the work as a means of enforcing, against +the work's users, your or third parties' legal rights to forbid +circumvention of technological measures. + +#### 4. Conveying Verbatim Copies. + +You may convey verbatim copies of the Program's source code as you +receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and +appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice; +keep intact all notices stating that this License and any +non-permissive terms added in accord with section 7 apply to the code; +keep intact all notices of the absence of any warranty; and give all +recipients a copy of this License along with the Program. + +You may charge any price or no price for each copy that you convey, +and you may offer support or warranty protection for a fee. + +#### 5. Conveying Modified Source Versions. + +You may convey a work based on the Program, or the modifications to +produce it from the Program, in the form of source code under the +terms of section 4, provided that you also meet all of these +conditions: + +- a) The work must carry prominent notices stating that you modified + it, and giving a relevant date. +- b) The work must carry prominent notices stating that it is + released under this License and any conditions added under + section 7. This requirement modifies the requirement in section 4 + to "keep intact all notices". +- c) You must license the entire work, as a whole, under this + License to anyone who comes into possession of a copy. This + License will therefore apply, along with any applicable section 7 + additional terms, to the whole of the work, and all its parts, + regardless of how they are packaged. This License gives no + permission to license the work in any other way, but it does not + invalidate such permission if you have separately received it. +- d) If the work has interactive user interfaces, each must display + Appropriate Legal Notices; however, if the Program has interactive + interfaces that do not display Appropriate Legal Notices, your + work need not make them do so. + +A compilation of a covered work with other separate and independent +works, which are not by their nature extensions of the covered work, +and which are not combined with it such as to form a larger program, +in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an +"aggregate" if the compilation and its resulting copyright are not +used to limit the access or legal rights of the compilation's users +beyond what the individual works permit. Inclusion of a covered work +in an aggregate does not cause this License to apply to the other +parts of the aggregate. + +#### 6. Conveying Non-Source Forms. + +You may convey a covered work in object code form under the terms of +sections 4 and 5, provided that you also convey the machine-readable +Corresponding Source under the terms of this License, in one of these +ways: + +- a) Convey the object code in, or embodied in, a physical product + (including a physical distribution medium), accompanied by the + Corresponding Source fixed on a durable physical medium + customarily used for software interchange. +- b) Convey the object code in, or embodied in, a physical product + (including a physical distribution medium), accompanied by a + written offer, valid for at least three years and valid for as + long as you offer spare parts or customer support for that product + model, to give anyone who possesses the object code either (1) a + copy of the Corresponding Source for all the software in the + product that is covered by this License, on a durable physical + medium customarily used for software interchange, for a price no + more than your reasonable cost of physically performing this + conveying of source, or (2) access to copy the Corresponding + Source from a network server at no charge. +- c) Convey individual copies of the object code with a copy of the + written offer to provide the Corresponding Source. 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Regardless of what server hosts the + Corresponding Source, you remain obligated to ensure that it is + available for as long as needed to satisfy these requirements. +- e) Convey the object code using peer-to-peer transmission, + provided you inform other peers where the object code and + Corresponding Source of the work are being offered to the general + public at no charge under subsection 6d. + +A separable portion of the object code, whose source code is excluded +from the Corresponding Source as a System Library, need not be +included in conveying the object code work. + +A "User Product" is either (1) a "consumer product", which means any +tangible personal property which is normally used for personal, +family, or household purposes, or (2) anything designed or sold for +incorporation into a dwelling. In determining whether a product is a +consumer product, doubtful cases shall be resolved in favor of +coverage. For a particular product received by a particular user, +"normally used" refers to a typical or common use of that class of +product, regardless of the status of the particular user or of the way +in which the particular user actually uses, or expects or is expected +to use, the product. A product is a consumer product regardless of +whether the product has substantial commercial, industrial or +non-consumer uses, unless such uses represent the only significant +mode of use of the product. + +"Installation Information" for a User Product means any methods, +procedures, authorization keys, or other information required to +install and execute modified versions of a covered work in that User +Product from a modified version of its Corresponding Source. The +information must suffice to ensure that the continued functioning of +the modified object code is in no case prevented or interfered with +solely because modification has been made. + +If you convey an object code work under this section in, or with, or +specifically for use in, a User Product, and the conveying occurs as +part of a transaction in which the right of possession and use of the +User Product is transferred to the recipient in perpetuity or for a +fixed term (regardless of how the transaction is characterized), the +Corresponding Source conveyed under this section must be accompanied +by the Installation Information. But this requirement does not apply +if neither you nor any third party retains the ability to install +modified object code on the User Product (for example, the work has +been installed in ROM). + +The requirement to provide Installation Information does not include a +requirement to continue to provide support service, warranty, or +updates for a work that has been modified or installed by the +recipient, or for the User Product in which it has been modified or +installed. Access to a network may be denied when the modification +itself materially and adversely affects the operation of the network +or violates the rules and protocols for communication across the +network. + +Corresponding Source conveyed, and Installation Information provided, +in accord with this section must be in a format that is publicly +documented (and with an implementation available to the public in +source code form), and must require no special password or key for +unpacking, reading or copying. + +#### 7. Additional Terms. + +"Additional permissions" are terms that supplement the terms of this +License by making exceptions from one or more of its conditions. +Additional permissions that are applicable to the entire Program shall +be treated as though they were included in this License, to the extent +that they are valid under applicable law. If additional permissions +apply only to part of the Program, that part may be used separately +under those permissions, but the entire Program remains governed by +this License without regard to the additional permissions. + +When you convey a copy of a covered work, you may at your option +remove any additional permissions from that copy, or from any part of +it. (Additional permissions may be written to require their own +removal in certain cases when you modify the work.) You may place +additional permissions on material, added by you to a covered work, +for which you have or can give appropriate copyright permission. + +Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, for material you +add to a covered work, you may (if authorized by the copyright holders +of that material) supplement the terms of this License with terms: + +- a) Disclaiming warranty or limiting liability differently from the + terms of sections 15 and 16 of this License; or +- b) Requiring preservation of specified reasonable legal notices or + author attributions in that material or in the Appropriate Legal + Notices displayed by works containing it; or +- c) Prohibiting misrepresentation of the origin of that material, + or requiring that modified versions of such material be marked in + reasonable ways as different from the original version; or +- d) Limiting the use for publicity purposes of names of licensors + or authors of the material; or +- e) Declining to grant rights under trademark law for use of some + trade names, trademarks, or service marks; or +- f) Requiring indemnification of licensors and authors of that + material by anyone who conveys the material (or modified versions + of it) with contractual assumptions of liability to the recipient, + for any liability that these contractual assumptions directly + impose on those licensors and authors. + +All other non-permissive additional terms are considered "further +restrictions" within the meaning of section 10. If the Program as you +received it, or any part of it, contains a notice stating that it is +governed by this License along with a term that is a further +restriction, you may remove that term. If a license document contains +a further restriction but permits relicensing or conveying under this +License, you may add to a covered work material governed by the terms +of that license document, provided that the further restriction does +not survive such relicensing or conveying. + +If you add terms to a covered work in accord with this section, you +must place, in the relevant source files, a statement of the +additional terms that apply to those files, or a notice indicating +where to find the applicable terms. + +Additional terms, permissive or non-permissive, may be stated in the +form of a separately written license, or stated as exceptions; the +above requirements apply either way. + +#### 8. Termination. + +You may not propagate or modify a covered work except as expressly +provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to propagate or +modify it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under +this License (including any patent licenses granted under the third +paragraph of section 11). + +However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license +from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, +unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally +terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder +fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to +60 days after the cessation. + +Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is +reinstated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the +violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have +received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that +copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after +your receipt of the notice. + +Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the +licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under +this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently +reinstated, you do not qualify to receive new licenses for the same +material under section 10. + +#### 9. Acceptance Not Required for Having Copies. + +You are not required to accept this License in order to receive or run +a copy of the Program. Ancillary propagation of a covered work +occurring solely as a consequence of using peer-to-peer transmission +to receive a copy likewise does not require acceptance. However, +nothing other than this License grants you permission to propagate or +modify any covered work. These actions infringe copyright if you do +not accept this License. Therefore, by modifying or propagating a +covered work, you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so. + +#### 10. Automatic Licensing of Downstream Recipients. + +Each time you convey a covered work, the recipient automatically +receives a license from the original licensors, to run, modify and +propagate that work, subject to this License. You are not responsible +for enforcing compliance by third parties with this License. + +An "entity transaction" is a transaction transferring control of an +organization, or substantially all assets of one, or subdividing an +organization, or merging organizations. If propagation of a covered +work results from an entity transaction, each party to that +transaction who receives a copy of the work also receives whatever +licenses to the work the party's predecessor in interest had or could +give under the previous paragraph, plus a right to possession of the +Corresponding Source of the work from the predecessor in interest, if +the predecessor has it or can get it with reasonable efforts. + +You may not impose any further restrictions on the exercise of the +rights granted or affirmed under this License. For example, you may +not impose a license fee, royalty, or other charge for exercise of +rights granted under this License, and you may not initiate litigation +(including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that +any patent claim is infringed by making, using, selling, offering for +sale, or importing the Program or any portion of it. + +#### 11. Patents. + +A "contributor" is a copyright holder who authorizes use under this +License of the Program or a work on which the Program is based. The +work thus licensed is called the contributor's "contributor version". + +A contributor's "essential patent claims" are all patent claims owned +or controlled by the contributor, whether already acquired or +hereafter acquired, that would be infringed by some manner, permitted +by this License, of making, using, or selling its contributor version, +but do not include claims that would be infringed only as a +consequence of further modification of the contributor version. For +purposes of this definition, "control" includes the right to grant +patent sublicenses in a manner consistent with the requirements of +this License. + +Each contributor grants you a non-exclusive, worldwide, royalty-free +patent license under the contributor's essential patent claims, to +make, use, sell, offer for sale, import and otherwise run, modify and +propagate the contents of its contributor version. + +In the following three paragraphs, a "patent license" is any express +agreement or commitment, however denominated, not to enforce a patent +(such as an express permission to practice a patent or covenant not to +sue for patent infringement). To "grant" such a patent license to a +party means to make such an agreement or commitment not to enforce a +patent against the party. + +If you convey a covered work, knowingly relying on a patent license, +and the Corresponding Source of the work is not available for anyone +to copy, free of charge and under the terms of this License, through a +publicly available network server or other readily accessible means, +then you must either (1) cause the Corresponding Source to be so +available, or (2) arrange to deprive yourself of the benefit of the +patent license for this particular work, or (3) arrange, in a manner +consistent with the requirements of this License, to extend the patent +license to downstream recipients. "Knowingly relying" means you have +actual knowledge that, but for the patent license, your conveying the +covered work in a country, or your recipient's use of the covered work +in a country, would infringe one or more identifiable patents in that +country that you have reason to believe are valid. + +If, pursuant to or in connection with a single transaction or +arrangement, you convey, or propagate by procuring conveyance of, a +covered work, and grant a patent license to some of the parties +receiving the covered work authorizing them to use, propagate, modify +or convey a specific copy of the covered work, then the patent license +you grant is automatically extended to all recipients of the covered +work and works based on it. + +A patent license is "discriminatory" if it does not include within the +scope of its coverage, prohibits the exercise of, or is conditioned on +the non-exercise of one or more of the rights that are specifically +granted under this License. You may not convey a covered work if you +are a party to an arrangement with a third party that is in the +business of distributing software, under which you make payment to the +third party based on the extent of your activity of conveying the +work, and under which the third party grants, to any of the parties +who would receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory patent +license (a) in connection with copies of the covered work conveyed by +you (or copies made from those copies), or (b) primarily for and in +connection with specific products or compilations that contain the +covered work, unless you entered into that arrangement, or that patent +license was granted, prior to 28 March 2007. + +Nothing in this License shall be construed as excluding or limiting +any implied license or other defenses to infringement that may +otherwise be available to you under applicable patent law. + +#### 12. No Surrender of Others' Freedom. + +If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or +otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not +excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot convey a +covered work so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under +this License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a +consequence you may not convey it at all. For example, if you agree to +terms that obligate you to collect a royalty for further conveying +from those to whom you convey the Program, the only way you could +satisfy both those terms and this License would be to refrain entirely +from conveying the Program. + +#### 13. Use with the GNU Affero General Public License. + +Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, you have +permission to link or combine any covered work with a work licensed +under version 3 of the GNU Affero General Public License into a single +combined work, and to convey the resulting work. The terms of this +License will continue to apply to the part which is the covered work, +but the special requirements of the GNU Affero General Public License, +section 13, concerning interaction through a network will apply to the +combination as such. + +#### 14. Revised Versions of this License. + +The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions +of the GNU General Public License from time to time. Such new versions +will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in +detail to address new problems or concerns. + +Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program +specifies that a certain numbered version of the GNU General Public +License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of +following the terms and conditions either of that numbered version or +of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the +Program does not specify a version number of the GNU General Public +License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free +Software Foundation. + +If the Program specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions +of the GNU General Public License can be used, that proxy's public +statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to +choose that version for the Program. + +Later license versions may give you additional or different +permissions. However, no additional obligations are imposed on any +author or copyright holder as a result of your choosing to follow a +later version. + +#### 15. Disclaimer of Warranty. + +THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY +APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT +HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM "AS IS" WITHOUT +WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT +LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR +A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND +PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE +DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR +CORRECTION. + +#### 16. Limitation of Liability. + +IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING +WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MODIFIES AND/OR +CONVEYS THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, +INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES +ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT +NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR +LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM +TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER +PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. + +#### 17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16. + +If the disclaimer of warranty and limitation of liability provided +above cannot be given local legal effect according to their terms, +reviewing courts shall apply local law that most closely approximates +an absolute waiver of all civil liability in connection with the +Program, unless a warranty or assumption of liability accompanies a +copy of the Program in return for a fee. + +END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS + +### How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs + +If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest +possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it +free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these +terms. + +To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to +attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively state +the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the +"copyright" line and a pointer to where the full notice is found. + + + Copyright (C) + + This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify + it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by + the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or + (at your option) any later version. + + This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, + but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of + MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the + GNU General Public License for more details. + + You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License + along with this program. If not, see . + +Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper +mail. + +If the program does terminal interaction, make it output a short +notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode: + + Copyright (C) + This program comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'. + This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it + under certain conditions; type `show c' for details. + +The hypothetical commands \`show w' and \`show c' should show the +appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, your +program's commands might be different; for a GUI interface, you would +use an "about box". + +You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or +school, if any, to sign a "copyright disclaimer" for the program, if +necessary. For more information on this, and how to apply and follow +the GNU GPL, see . + +The GNU General Public License does not permit incorporating your +program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine +library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary +applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the +GNU Lesser General Public License instead of this License. But first, +please read . diff --git a/package.json b/package.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000..db1e582 --- /dev/null +++ b/package.json @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +{ + "name": "conlang.phundrak.com", + "version": "1.0.0", + "description": "", + "main": "index.js", + "scripts": { + "docs:dev": "vuepress dev docs", + "docs:build": "vuepress build docs" + }, + "repository": { + "type": "git", + "url": "https://labs.phundrak.com/phundrak/conlang.phundrak.com" + }, + "author": "Lucien Cartier-Tilet ", + "license": "AGPL-3.0", + "devDependencies": { + "vuepress": "^2.0.0-beta.60" + }, + "dependencies": { + "vuepress-plugin-remove-html-extension": "^0.1.0" + } +}